Tag: internship

N’GORONGORO CRATER AND CONSERVATION AREA

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By Farzad Ghotaslou – Art in Tanzania, Internship Project

N’Gorongoro is every week destination for Art in Tanzania safari participants. The world-famous crater is part of Serengeti safari and also time to time destination of it own or combined to the visit to Tarangire and Lake Manyara National parks.

Ngorongoro Conservation Area, national conservation area in the Arusha region of northern Tanzania, southeast of Serengeti National Park. Occupying some 3,200 square miles (8,300 square km), it extends over part of the Eastern (Great) Rift Valley of eastern Africa and contains a variety of habitats and landscapes, including grassland plains, savanna woodlands, forests, mountains, volcanic craters, lakes, rivers, and swampland. 

Ngorongoro Crater, one of the world’s largest unbroken calderas, is the most prominent feature of the park. Also located there are the major archaeological sites of Olduvai Gorge and Laetolil, within which were found hominin remains dating from 2.1 million and 3.6 million years ago, respectively. 

The area’s main volcanic formations, including Ngorongoro Crater and the volcanoes Olmoti and Empakaai, formed from 20 million to 2 million years ago. Empakaai Crater is noted for the deep soda lake that occupies nearly half of its caldera floor.

Ngorongoro Conservation Area is host to the largest ungulate herds in the world, including gnu (wildebeests), plains zebras, and Thomson’s and Grant’s gazelles. Predatory animals include lions, spotted hyenas, leopards, and cheetahs. The endangered black rhinoceros and African hunting dog can also be found there. Notable among more than 400 species of birds in the area are flamingos, silvery-cheeked hornbills, superb starlings, and bronze and tacazze sunbirds.

Ngorogoro was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979. Although cultivation is not permitted within the area, some 25,000 to 40,000 Masai are allowed to graze their livestock there. Issues of concern during the latter part of the 20th century were the damage to the ecosystem caused by overgrazing and tourism vehicles and the diminishing of black rhinoceros, leopard, and elephant populations because of poaching.

The Ngorongoro Conservation Area spans vast expanses of highland plains, savanna, savanna woodlands and forests, from the plains of the Serengeti National Park in the north-west, to the eastern arm of the Great Rift Valley. The area was established in 1959 as a multiple land use area, with wildlife coexisting with semi-nomadic Maasai pastoralists practicing traditional livestock grazing.

It includes the spectacular Ngorongoro Crater, the world’s largest caldera, and Olduvai Gorge, a 14km long deep ravine. The property has global importance for biodiversity conservation in view of the presence of globally threatened species such as the black Rhino, the density of wildlife inhabiting the Ngorongoro Crater and surrounding areas throughout the year, and the annual migration of wildebeest, zebra, Thompson’s and Grant’s gazelles and other ungulates into the northern plains.

The area has been subject to extensive archaeological research for over 80 years and has yielded a long sequence of evidence of human evolution and human-environment dynamics, collectively extending over a span of almost four million years to the early modern era.

This evidence includes fossilized footprints at Laetoli, associated with the development of human bipedalism, a sequence of diverse, evolving hominin species within Olduvai gorge, which range from Australopiths such as Zinjanthropus boisei to the Homo lineage that includes Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens; an early form of Homo sapiens at Lake Ndutu; and, in the Ngorongoro crater, remains that document the development of stone technology and the transition to the use of iron.

The overall landscape of the area is seen to have the potential to reveal much more evidence concerning the rise of anatomically modern humans, modern behavior and human ecology.

The Area has yielded an exceptionally long sequence of crucial evidence related to human evolution and human-environment dynamics, collectively extending from four million years ago to the beginning of this era, including physical evidence of the most important benchmarks in human evolutionary development.

Although the interpretation of many of the assemblages of Olduvai Gorge is still debatable, their extent and density are remarkable. Several of the type fossils in the hominin lineage come from this site. Furthermore, future research in the property is likely to reveal much more evidence concerning the rise of anatomically modern humans, modern behavior, and human ecology.

The stunning landscape of Ngorongoro Crater combined with its spectacular concentration of wildlife is one of the greatest natural wonders of the planet. Spectacular wildebeest numbers (well over 1 million animals) pass through the property as part of the annual migration of wildebeest across the Serengeti ecosystem and calve in the short grass plains which straddle the Ngorongoro Conservation Area/Serengeti National Park boundary. This constitutes a truly superb natural phenomenon.

Ngorongoro crater is the largest unbroken caldera in the world. The crater, together with the Olmoti and Empakaai craters are part of the eastern Rift Valley, whose volcanism dates back to the late Mesozoic / early Tertiary periods and is famous for its geology. The property also includes Laetoli and Olduvai Gorge, which contain an important palaeontological record related to human evolution.

The variations in climate, landforms and altitude have resulted in several overlapping ecosystems and distinct habitats, with short grass plains, highland catchment forests, savanna woodlands, montane long grass plains and high open moorlands. The property is part of the Serengeti ecosystem, one of the last intact ecosystems in the world which harbors large and spectacular animal migrations

In relation to natural values, the grasslands, and woodlands of the property support very large animal populations, largely undisturbed by cultivation at the time of inscription. The wide-ranging landscapes of the property were not impacted by development or permanent agriculture at the time of inscription.

The integrity of the property is also enhanced by being part of Serengeti – Mara ecosystem. The property adjoins Serengeti National Park (1,476,300 ha), which is also included on the World Heritage List as a natural property. Connectivity within and between these properties and adjoining landscapes, through functioning wildlife corridors is essential to protect the integrity of animal migrations.

No hunting is permitted in Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), but poaching of wildlife is a continuing threat, requiring effective patrolling and enforcement capacity. Invasive species are a source of ongoing concern, requiring continued monitoring and effective action if detected.

Tourism pressure is also of concern, including in relation to the potential impacts from increased visitation, new infrastructure, traffic, waste management, disturbance to wildlife and the potential for introduction of invasive species.

The property provides grazing land for semi-nomadic Maasai pastoralists. At the time of inscription an estimated 20,000 Maasai were living in the property, with some 275,000 head of livestock, which was considered within the capacity of the reserve.

No permanent agriculture is officially allowed in the property. Further growth of the Maasai population and the number of cattle should remain within the capacity of the property, and increasing decentralization, local overgrazing and agricultural encroachment are threats to both the natural and cultural values of the property.

There were no inhabitants in Ngorongoro and Empaakai Craters or the forest at the time of inscription in 1979.

The property encompasses not only the known archaeological remains but also areas of high archaeo-anthropological potential where related finds might be made. However, the integrity of specific paleo-archaeological attributes and the overall sensitive landscape are to an extent under threat and thus vulnerable due to the lack of enforcement of protection arrangements related to grazing regimes, and from proposed access and tourist related developments at Laetoli and Olduvai Gorge.

The primary legislation protecting the property is the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Ordinance of 1959. The property is under the management of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA). The Division of Antiquities is responsible for the management and protection of the paleo-anthropological resources within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. A memorandum of understanding should be established and maintained to formally establish the relations between the two entities.

Property management is guided by a General Management Plan. Currently, the primary management objectives are to conserve the natural resources of the property, protect the interests of the Maasai pastoralists, and to promote tourism.

The management system and the Management Plan need to be widened to encompass an integrated cultural and natural approach, bringing together ecosystem needs with cultural objectives to achieve a sustainable approach to conserving the Outstanding Universal Value of the property, including the management of grasslands and the archaeological resource, and to promote environmental and cultural awareness.

The Plan needs to extend the management of cultural attributes beyond social issues and the resolution of human-wildlife conflicts to the documentation, conservation and management of the cultural resources and the investigation of the potential of the wider landscape in archaeological terms.

Vehicle access to the crater and other popular areas of the property requires clear limits to protect the quality of experience of the property and to ensure natural and cultural attributes are not unduly disturbed. Developments and infrastructure for tourism or management of the property that impinge on its natural and cultural attributes should not be permitted.

Considering the important relationship, in natural terms of the property to adjoining reserves, it is important to establish effective and continuing collaboration between the property, Serengeti National Park, and other areas of the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem to assure connectivity for wildlife migrations, and harmonize management objectives regarding tourism use, landscape management and sustainable development.

References:

1.Wikiepedia

2.TripAdvisor

3.Britanica

4.Unesco official website

5. www.ncaa.go.tz

HIV AND AIDS IN TANZANIA

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By Gwamaka Mwakyusa – Art in Tanzania internship

2018, 1.6 million people were living with HIV in Tanzania. This equates to an estimated HIV prevalence among adults of 4.6%. In the same year, 72,000 people were newly infected with HIV, and 24,000 people died from an AIDS-related illness.

Despite the numbers, Tanzania has done well to control the HIV epidemic over the last decade. Scaling up access to antiretroviral treatment (ART) has meant that between 2010 and 2018, the number of new infections declined by 13% and the number of people dying from an AIDS-related illness has halved.

Key affected populations in Tanzania

Tanzania’s HIV epidemic is generalized, meaning it affects all sections of society, but there are also concentrated epidemics among certain population groups, such as people who inject drugs, men who have sex with men, mobile populations, and sex workers. Heterosexual sex accounts for the vast majority (80%) of HIV infections in the country and women are particularly affected.

The severity of the epidemic varies geographically. Some regions of Tanzania report no HIV prevalence (Kusini Unguja and Kaskazini Pemba) while other regions have prevalence as high as 11.4% (Njombe). Overall, the epidemic has remained steady due to ongoing new infections, population growth and increased access to treatment.

Bar graph showing HIV prevalence by age and sex in Tanzania

Women

Women are disproportionately affected by HIV in Tanzania. In 2018, 880,000 women aged 15 and over were living with HIV, compared to 580,000 adult men. In the same year, more than 36,000 women acquired HIV, compared to around 27,000 men.

The nationally representative 2016-2017 Tanzania Impact Survey (THIS) found that women aged 15-39 are more than twice as likely to be living with HIV as their male counterparts. HIV prevalence is highest among women aged 45-49, at 12% (compared with 8.4% among men of this age

Gender inequality is widespread among women of all ages in Tanzania. In 2016, around 30% of women aged 15-49 who had ever been married or in a long-term relationship were estimated to have experienced physical or sexual violence from a male intimate partner in the past 12 months.9 This increases many women’s vulnerability to HIV, either directly, through sexual violence, or indirectly, through an inability to negotiate condoms or prevent their partner from having other sexual relationships.

In addition, women tend to become infected earlier because they have older partners and get married earlier.

Young people

It is estimated that more than half the population in Tanzania are aged 19 and under.11

THIS reported HIV prevalence among young people (ages 15-24) at 1%, with young women around four times more likely than young men to be living with HIV (2% prevalence among young women, compared to 0.6% prevalence among young men). Prevalence among children (ages 0-14) is 0.3%.

In 2018, just under 24,000 young people in Tanzania became HIV-positive; roughly two-thirds of whom were young women (16,000 new infections among young women, compared to 7,600 among young men).13 In 2016/17, 3.4% of women aged 20-24 were living with HIV, compared to 0.9% of their male counterparts.

The disparity between the sexes is linked to age-related vulnerabilities experienced by young women that intersect with widespread gender inequality. For instance, Tanzania’s ‘sugar daddy’ culture, in which young women embark on sexual relationships with older men in exchange for material goods or social advancement, is a key driver of HIV among young women.

Even though their partners come from age groups with higher HIV prevalence than younger men, and may also engage in other sexual relationships, young women are often unable to negotiate condom use due to the unequal power balance in these relationships. This is demonstrated by a study involving 18 to 24 year-old women in Dar es Salaam, which found that in couples of the

Same age decisions about condom use were together (48%) or by young women alone (34%). Decision-making during sex with older men was predominantly made by the male partner (79%).

Many young people are also unaware about how to prevent transmission. In 2016/17, just 37% of young people demonstrated adequate knowledge on how to prevent HIV and could correctly reject common misconceptions about how the virus is transmitted.17 Young people, particularly young men, are also less likely than older age groups to test for HIV. As a result, in 2016/17 it was estimated that only half of young people living with HIV were aware of their status.

People who inject drugs (PWID)

Tanzania is home to a significant population of people who inject drugs (sometimes referred to as PWID). In 2014, Tanzania National AIDS Control Program (NACP) estimated there were 30,000 people who inject drugs in the country, 35% of whom were living with HIV.

HIV prevalence among women who inject drugs is thought to be twice that of their male peers. The reasons for this are not fully known although possible factors include women who inject drugs being involved in sex work or being last in line when syringes are shared.

Data on people who inject drugs varies widely between studies, due to the hidden nature of this population. Existing evidence suggests heroin use is on the rise and this population group is growing.

Most studies involving people who inject drugs in Tanzania have been conducted in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar. Zanzibar is a gateway to the African continent and is also situated along a major corridor for drug trafficking. Around one in six people who live in Zanzibar and inject drugs is living with HIV, according to 2010 estimates, although some believe this figure be higher

A 2015 study of 480 people who use drugs in the northwestern city of Mwanza found that 13.5% of respondents injected drugs, 67% of whom shared needles. This study suggests that injecting drug use, particularly heroin, is now a significant issue in a major city outside Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar.

Mobile populations

Migration is common in Tanzania. In particular, the expansion of the mining sector has led to greater urbanization and mobility between rural and urban areas. This means that young and sexually active men come into close contact with ‘high risk sexual networks’ made up of sex workers, women at truck stops and miners: all of whom have high levels of HIV prevalence.

Long-distance truck drivers, agricultural plantation workers and fishermen working along coastal trading towns are also at an increased risk of HIV. For example, a 2015 study by the International Organization for Migration on truck drivers in Dar es Salaam found all those surveyed had established sexual relationships with partners at truck stops whom they considered permanent or second wives (described as ‘Mapoza’). A 2018 study involving around 400 people from fishing communities in Tanzania found an overall HIV prevalence of 14%, although this varied widely depending on location, from 7.2% to 23.8%. Around 38% of study participants living with HIV who had been diagnosed had not started treatment.

It is not only mobile men who are at increased risk of HIV infection. Women who travel away from home five or more times in a year have been found to be twice as likely to be infected with HIV than women who do not travel.

Sex workers

Tanzania criminalizes sex work, and it is punishable by law. Despite this, it is estimated that around 150,000 people, mainly women, sell sex, especially in Dar-es-Salaam.

In 2018, HIV prevalence among female sex workers was estimated at 15.4%. However, as with many other key population groups, data is limited and previous estimates suggest HIV prevalence among this group is much higher, at around 31%. Around 70% of sex workers are estimated to use condoms. This is despite sex workers having poor access to HIV prevention

programs, which are thought to reach around one in five.

The gender inequalities that result in women being disproportionately affected by HIV in Tanzania are acutely felt by female sex workers. The fact that sex work is also illegal means sex workers are subject to abuse and human rights violations from clients and from those in authority, including police officers and healthcare workers.

This means many sex workers are reluctant to access HIV prevention, testing and treatment services while also being exposed to high levels of sexual violence, multiple partners and condom less sex.

Men who have sex with men (MSM)

Same-sex sexual relations are illegal in Tanzania. As a result, data on this population group is extremely limited, a situation made worse by a government-sanctioned crackdown on LGBT people that began in 2015.

In 2018, 8.4% of men who have sex with men (sometimes referred to as MSM) in Tanzania were estimated to be living with HIV.36 However previous estimates released in 2014 put prevalence much higher, at 25%. This data suggested there were 49,700 men who have sex with men in the country.

In 2014, only around 14% of men who have sex with men reported using condoms consistently. However, data from 2013 put condom use levels at 63%, highlighting how patchy the evidence currently is.

HIV testing and counselling (HTC) in Tanzania

Results from THIS suggests around 65% of adults in Tanzania have taken an HIV test at least once (59% of men and 71% of women) but only a third regularly test for HIV (every 12 months). Around 16% of adults who tested positive during THIS had never been tested for HIV before (20% of men and 14% of women).

Adolescents (ages 15-19) have particularly low testing levels, despite high levels of sexual activity. THIS found that around 79% of adolescent men and 61% of adolescent women had never tested for HIV before.

Over the last decade, Tanzania has increased its efforts to get more people testing for HIV. The number of voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) sites in the country has rapidly expanded (around 2,100 as of  2013).

In the same year Tanzania introduced new HIV testing approaches such as home-based testing, community testing and provider-initiated testing.

Since other testing approaches, such as index testing, have also been introduced. As a result of these accelerated efforts, in 2018 the number of people living with HIV who were aware of their status was 78%, compared with 64% in 2015.

In 2018 the Tanzanian government began to fully scale-up self-testing for HIV and is focusing on providing self-testing kits for hard-to-reach groups. For example, using antennal clinics to provide pregnant women with self-testing kits to pass onto their husbands or boyfriends. Pilot programs are also being carried out to learn how best to provide self-testing kits to the partners of sex workers and other key and vulnerable populations.

The Tanzanian government has also begun a campaign called Furaha Yangu! (My Happiness!) to increase the number of young men and adolescent boys testing for HIV.

HIV prevention programs in Tanzania

In 2018, 72,000 people became HIV-positive in Tanzania. Although new infections have declined by 13% since 2010, more needs to be done to reduce HIV transmission.

Tanzania is currently implementing its fourth Health Sector HIV and AIDS Strategic Plan (HSHSP IV), which runs between 2017 and 2022. The strategy aims to increase access to combination prevention services for the general population in order to reduce new HIV infections. The guidelines also commit to implementing comprehensive prevention services for a number of key populations, including adolescent girls and young women, female sex workers, men who have sex with men, people who inject drugs, prisoners and migrant populations.

Significant progress that has been made in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) in the past few years in Tanzania. In 2018, 93% of pregnant women living with HIV were receiving effective ART, compared to 75% in 2010. It is estimated that ART coverage among pregnant women living with HIV has averted around 14,000 new infections among newborns. However, 8,600 children still acquired HIV in 2018.

One of the reasons for HIV transmission still occurring vertically (from parent to child) is that  not all pregnant women are tested for HIV. In 2018, 91% of pregnant women attending antenatal services received HIV testing. In addition, only half (47%) of infants exposed to HIV during pregnancy were tested for HIV within eight weeks of birth (known as ‘early infant diagnosis’).

To reach as many women as possible, the vast majority of PMTCT services are now integrated with reproductive and child health services.

Inefficient antiretroviral drug regimens for pregnant women and new mothers, drug stock-outs and poor adherence to treatment also contribute to the continuing transmission of HIV via this route.

Condom promotion

The Tanzanian government recognizes condom promotion as an integral part of its fight against the epidemic. The goal of its 2017-2022 HIV prevention strategy is to ensure 85% of people engaged in multiple sexual partnerships use condoms correctly and consistently.

To achieve this, around 260 million free condoms must be made available annually. However, weak supply lines and a lack of funding means this may not be achievable. In 2018, it was reported that the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria would finance 120 million public sector condoms, PSI would contribute around 18 million and an additional 20 million would be provided by other sources. This leaves an impending shortfall of around 100 million condoms.

In addition, more effective promotion is needed to encourage people to use condoms. In 2017, it was reported that just 30% of women and 46% of men used a condom the last time they had a sex with a non-marital, non-cohabiting partner. These levels are lower than previously reported, suggesting more people are engaging in risky sexual behavior that leaves them vulnerable to HIV infection

Low condom use is also occurring among high-risk groups. For instance, a study involving 18 to 24 year-old women in Dar-es-salaam found that only 32% used a condom during sex with regular boyfriends. Condom use declined even further if the women were involved in transactional sexual relationships with older men, with only 2% saying they always used a condom during these types of sexual encounters.

HIV awareness and sex education

While Tanzania has a broad sex education curriculum, only a third of schoolteachers have been trained on how to deliver these lessons, meaning access is patchy. In addition, certain subjects, such as the examination of minority sexualities, are not covered. Condom demonstration and condom distribution is also not allowed during sex education lessons. On top of this, the number of people attending school beyond primary level is low, with only around 19% of people having some form of secondary education. This limits the opportunities to reach older adolescents with sexual health education.

To fill these gaps, a number of civil society organizations provide additional sexual and reproductive health and HIV education, in and out of school settings.

Voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC)

Circumcision is an effective HIV prevention strategy, reducing a man’s risk of acquiring HIV by approximately 60%. When used in combination with other prevention measures, circumcision is an important addition to HIV-prevention options for men.

In 2010 the government prioritized 11 regions for scaling VMMC and set a target of 2.8 million circumcisions by 2016.60 Around 2.6 million men were circumcised between 2015 and 2018, equating to around 80% of 15 to 49-year-old men.

CASE STUDY: Creating demand for VMMC

When a VMMC project was first established in the Kaliua District, Tabora, many men were put off by rumors that the removed foreskins would be used for conducting rituals. To dispel these rumors and create demand for the service, peer educators from the project hold meeting with community leaders to answer specific questions and address any concerns about the safety of VMMC and the disposal of foreskins.

Targeting influential people within the community paid off. The number of people presenting for voluntary circumcision, which had previously been visited predominantly by boys from a nearby primary school, subsequently increased to an average of between 20-28 adult men each day.

The local outreach site and dispensary conducted more than 1,000 VMMCs in 2015.

Cash transfer programs

Cash transfer programs form part of a new arm of HIV prevention that focuses on integrated programs for social protection schemes and sexual health. Across sub-Saharan Africa these types of programs have been shown to have a positive effect on preventing HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

In one Tanzanian pilot, cash incentives of US$10 or US$20 were given to young adults aged between 18 and 30, as long as they were free from STIs. One year into the study, there was a 25% risk reduction in STIs. These programs show that economic benefit can positively influence people to use condoms more frequently.

In 2017 the Tanzanian government, in collaboration with UNICEF, began a cash transfer scheme called Cash Plus as part of a program to empower and strengthen the resilience and wellbeing of adolescents from the country’s poorest households. Cash Plus participants receive tailored, life skills training on various subjects, including sexual and reproductive health, as well as being linked to sexual and reproductive health and HIV services. They also receive financial support to either stay in school or start a small business and are supported by mentors and peer educators throughout.

Harm reduction

In 2011, with assistance from PEPFAR, Tanzania became the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to implement a harm reduction program for people who inject drugs. A methadone treatment clinic opened up in Tanzania’s largest health facility, based in Dar es Salaam, then extended to a second hospital in the city.  Although there has since been an increase in opioid substitution therapy (OST) interventions outside Dar es Salaam, access remains limited, with just 20% of people who inject drugs able to access OST in 2018.

This is also the case with needle and syringe exchanges. In 2017, just 15 needles and syringes were distributed per person per year. As a result, it is estimated that around 14% of Tanzanian-based people who inject drugs are sharing needles when injecting.

Harm Reduction International also reports that the Tanzanian government has taken “regressive steps” in its harm reduction-related policy in recent years, with policy-makers continuing to favor abstinence-based approaches above harm reduction.

Pre exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)

In 2018 Tanzania began to scale up pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), a daily course of antiretroviral drugs taken by HIV-negative people to protect themselves from infection, for key populations. The following year, the government announced plans to extend this nationwide, including expanding eligibility criteria to include adolescent girls and young women.

As of 2019, it was estimated that between 3,200 and 3,700 people were using PrEP in Tanzania. Most of these people are adolescent girls and young women, although female sex workers and their partners and the HIV-negative partners of people living with HIV are also being targeted by implementation or demonstration projects.

Antiretroviral treatment (ART) in Tanzania

Tanzania has significantly scaled up its antiretroviral (ART) programs in recent years, and the number of people on ART has been steadily increasing since 2010.

In 2017, Tanzania introduced the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended ‘test and treat’ guidelines, which makes anyone testing positive for HIV eligible for immediate treatment regardless of the level of HIV in their body. This has seen ART coverage expand significantly: in 2018, 71% of people living with HIV in Tanzania were receiving ART, equivalent to 1.1 million people.

This is around a 20% increase from 2015, when 52% of HIV-positive people were on ART. As of 2018, around 90% of people diagnosed with HIV began ART in less than seven days.

HIV-positive women are far more likely to be on treatment than HIV-positive men. In 2018, 82% of women and 57% of men living with HIV were receiving ART.

Children (ages 0-14) are less able to access treatment than adults, with 65% of HIV-positive children on ART in 2018. However, this is an improvement on 2015 levels when just 53% of HIV- positive children were on treatment.

More than 95% of people on treatment are still in care after 12 months, according to 2018 data. This is closely linked to good levels of viral suppression. In 2018, 87% of people diagnosed and on treatment were virally suppressed, with men and women enjoying similar levels of viral suppression (86% and 89% respectively). However, due to gaps in testing and linkage to care, overall, only 62% of people living with HIV are virally suppressed.

Studies conducted in various regions of Tanzania have reported low linkage to care for people who test HIV-positive. For example, a study following around 1,000 people newly diagnosed with HIV in Mbeya, a rural area, found just 28% were successfully linked to care. Under-resourced, poorly coordinated health services, as well as high levels of HIV-related stigma were the main reasons these people did not begin treatment.

The Tanzanian government has begun to simplify drug regimens and move to fixed-dose combinations while phasing out toxic drugs such as Stavudine. Evidence is currently mixed as to whether levels of pre-treatment and acquired drug-resistant HIV are high enough to be considered a public health issue in Tanzania.

Civil society’s role

Poverty, poor institutional and infrastructural support, and social and cultural neglect are impeding an effective and progressive HIV response in Tanzania. In 2017, Civicus, the global alliance of civil society organizations and activists dedicated to strengthening citizen action and civil society, placed the country on a watch list due to growing threats to civic space. In February of the same year, the government closed 40 healthcare facilities providing HIV services under the premise that they were promoting homosexuality. In June 2017, President Magufuli severely criticized NGOs working for the rights of LGBTI people.

In 2018, Tanzania’s sustained anti-gay crackdown was part of a broader trend of suppression and a disappearing civil society voice. The repercussions have been felt through all key population groups, affecting access to HIV and sexual health services, and increasing stigma and discrimination.86 It has also resulted in hundreds of LGBT activists going into hiding in order to avoid punishment.

They are raiding houses. It is a horrible thing. It is just going to get worse. So many people are leaving the city, running away. They are targeting the activists, saying we are promoting homosexuality.

The WHO classifies Tanzania within the top 20 high burden countries for tuberculosis (TB) and for TB/HIV.

In 2017, just under 70,000 cases of TB were presented and 98% had a known HIV status. Of this group, 31% were co-infected with HIV, of whom 95% were on antiretroviral treatment. In the same year, 22,000 people living with HIV died due to TB. The death rate has halved since 2010 when there were 44,000 TB-related deaths among HIV-positive people in Tanzania.

The government has prioritized the integration of TB services with HIV services to minimize the burden of these two co-morbidities. Ensuring that people living with HIV are on antiretroviral treatment means that they are in a better place to fight off TB infection. Integrating these two services will also ensure greater access to TB treatment.

The Tanzanian government has done well to keep the country on track to reaching all of the TB targets set within the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) frameworks.

The number of people living with HIV who presented with TB and received treatment for HIV and TB increased from 16% in 2012 to 42% in 2017.92 However, this still leaves a large portion of people with HIV/TB co-infected without comprehensive treatment.

Taking actions to reduce neonatal disorders

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By Pooja Senthamaraiselvan – Art in Tanzania internship

Tanzania is making great strides in reducing child mortality, but has demonstrated slower progress in reducing neonatal deaths. There has been a declining trend in NMR over the past decade but it indicates a very gradual improvement. In order to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 4 for child survival, the number of newborn deaths in Tanzania must be greatly reduced. At the current rate of progress, Millennium Development Goal 4 could be met, if more attention is given to newborn survival [1].

Most neonatal deaths are due to preventable and treatable causes. Up to two-thirds of newborn lives could be saved if essential care reached mothers and babies [1]. Hence, there are opportunities to lower mortality rates even further with interventions at both the health facility level and the community level in Tanzania to ensure better healthcare provision to these parties.

This will mainly require implementing improvements in resources for maternal and neonatal care in terms of quality, availability, accessibility, and affordability as well as creating more awareness about birth plans for labour and delivery among the people in Tanzania, particularly pregnant women.

Actions at the health facility level to save newborn lives

  • Improve infrastructure and supplies – ensuring every district hospital has a neonatal unit, practices Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) and all health facilities have functional equipment and essential drugs such as gentamicin for treating neonatal sepsis
  • Recruit and retain quality staff – filling vacant posts and addressing turnover among existing staff; ensuring competence in key skills such as neonatal resuscitation
  • Improve guidelines and service delivery – establishing or improving procedures for routine postnatal care and management of preterm and sick newborns
  • Integrate services – linking emergency obstetric services with newborn care and improving transport and referral mechanisms
  • Use data locally for quality improvement – recording and auditing neonatal deaths and stillbirths [1]

Actions at the family and community level to save newborn lives

  • Identify a means to reach every mother and baby in the early postnatal period (within the first two days after birth)
  • Invest in primary health care at the village level by ensuring appropriate supervision, remuneration and working conditions for village health workers
  • Strengthen community – Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) to effectively reinforce healthy behaviours, recognition of danger signs and timely care seeking, to identify harmful traditional practices and awareness of key newborn health packages, such as routine postnatal care, KMC and IMCI
  • Engage communities in birth preparedness, including planning to give birth at a health facility and emergency transport
  • Reduce the economic burden of a facility birth on women and their families [1]

These actions depend on leadership at all levels. Tanzania’s decentralised health system ensures that public health interventions are linked to those who need them but more effort is needed to integrate newborn health packages into district level budgets and planning. Newborn lives can be saved by implementing appropriate policies, improving staffing levels and supervision in health facilities and providing an enabling environment for community-level care.

There is an immediate opportunity for Tanzania to implement the recommendations within the Road Map/One Plan to improve newborn health from the highest level in both public and private health facilities and to infl uence the care newborns receive at home.

Tanzania’s future depends on the ability of these newborns to survive and thrive. This situation analysis sheds light on the current state of care and the opportunities to save lives. While better data, policy change and revised guidelines will make a difference, it takes people to act to save newborn lives. Will you use this information to become a champion of the country’s most vulnerable and precious citizens?

References

[1]https://www.countdown2015mnch.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Tanzania_SituationAnalysis_Newborn.pdf

The Effect of COVID – 19 on African Tourism

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By Dilyara Shantayeva – Art in Tanzania internship

Tourism is an important economic sector for Africa. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation, Africa received 71.2 million international arrivals in 2019 amounting to about US$ 40 billion in revenue. This represents a 4 percent growth in arrivals over that of the previous year. Tourism has witnessed sustained growth on the continent as governments continued to pursue it as a viable economic option due to its contribution in terms of jobs, revenue, foreign exchange, and infrastructure.

Africa is increasingly becoming a preferred destination for many international tourists looking to enjoy its sunny beaches, ecotourism products, national parks and safaris and exotic culture and food. Unfortunately, the projected growth of between 3 to 5% in international arrivals for the continent cannot be realised: like every continent, Africa’s tourism industry is shattered, and the inflow of the tourist dollar has ceased due to the impact of COVID-19. The highly contagious spread of the coronavirus ultimately stopped most of the traveling to many touristic destinations is still causing many discrepancies these days as well. This article will overview the main effects of COVID – 19 on African tourism.

“We live in very challenging and uncharted waters at the moment,” says Nigel Vere Nicoll, President of the African Travel and Tourism Association (ATTA), an organization which he founded 25 years ago. ATTA has around 700 members in Sub-Saharan Africa, split relatively evenly between buyers – such as tour operators – and suppliers (hotels, lodges, and transportation companies). In the interview with the journalist from the Africa Outlook, he mentioned that one of the biggest problems currently facing the industry is confusion over cancelled bookings. Travellers who’ve already booked the tours and tickets and the situation have changed very rapidly, they have loads of questions concerning refunds, re-bookings, and other related issues.

He also mentioned the economic issues that Africa had encountered during the pandemics: “Take one small boutique lodge in Africa with, say, 10 rooms,” he says. “They would employ about 50 people, but their extended suppliers – so, the person who does the laundry, or brings in the eggs every day – probably equates to around 1,000 extra people. If that lodge packs up, then 1,000 people have no income.”

There are also other, less obvious effect: In Kenya, for example, many conservancies have been established on land belonging to the Masai Mara peoples. They remove their grazing cattle from the land and lease it to organisations building safari lodges that conserve it for wildlife, the revenue from tourists providing an income to the Masai people.

“That model works fine until there’s a nonessential travel warning, and then no money is coming in and they can’t pay the Masai,” Vere Nicoll adds. “One my closest friends has just been to see one of the chiefs and explained the situation, telling him ‘we’re going to go on paying you out of reserve funds, but we don’t know how long this is sustainable for.’

“If this goes on for a long time, all this work on conservancies will be put in jeopardy, because if the Masai don’t get revenue then their livelihood is at stake.”

So, what is the solution? How can the African tourism industry keep going?

Vere Nicoll believes the answer lies in domestic tourism. As there are such low levels of COVID-19 within many African countries now, travel is still possible.

“It’s not possible to cross borders within Africa, because they all have the same warning on, but it is possible to create domestic tourism,” he explains. “In fact, this is an amazing opportunity to create cashflow for survival with the local market. Kenya, for example, has a huge number of Europeans living within the country, who could become domestic tourists.”

Another saving grace is that it’s currently low season in East Africa, so tourism companies and hotels in that area anticipate having fewer customers this time of year. Some smaller safari lodges are even closed, ready to reopen for summer’s high season.

“What we are hoping is that tourism will recover in the English autumn, and they’ll have the chance to get some bookings in the late season, leading up until Christmas,” Vere Nicoll says. “If it lasts any longer, we’re in a totally different ball game.”

However, he concludes our conversation on a note of optimism. “The bottom line is that the tourism industry is very resilient. It always has been. We’ve been through many problems over the years, especially in eastern and southern Africa, and we’ve always come through in the end.

“I think the industry will come out of it much stronger. A lot of relationships will be built up. And I think that once the coronavirus goes, if it’s a short-term thing, then the industry will bounce back tremendously.”

In general, the tourism industry has been heavily impacted by the pandemic as people’s economic lives are halted and their freedom of movement curtailed. Chiefly among these impacts on African economies is the reduction in foreign income. With the closure of the world economy and the associated redundancy as well as closure of international borders, international tourist inflows into Africa have ceased.

The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) indicates that international tourist arrivals to Africa decreased by 35% between January to April 2020 as a result of the pandemic. Countries such as Gambia, South Africa, Egypt, Kenya, and a host of others that are heavily dependent on the expenditure of international tourists have witnessed dwindled injections of tourism-based foreign income. Equally, and associated with this, is the closure of tourism businesses. Tourism businesses are forced to close either because of internal measures to help stop the spread of the coronavirus or directly because of the absence of tourists.

Either way, the closure of tourism businesses such as hotels, attractions, travel and tour operations, food and beverage services, and other support businesses have resulted in massive job losses across the tourism industry in Africa. Both direct jobs that are primarily targeted at serving tourists and those in the value chain have all been impacted.

Ultimately, the closure of tourism businesses coupled with massive job losses have resulted in the reduction of corporate and individual income tax revenue to African governments and thereby affected their abilities to provide the required public services and infrastructure. Such tourism-dependent African economies are therefore compelled to increase their borrowing, thereby spiraling their debt burden and potentially perpetuating their poverty cycle. For instance, South Africa, a country with a significant tourism sector, for the first time in its history took a loan of US$ 4.3 billion from the IMF. Interestingly, this amount is less than its annual foreign income from the tourism industry.

Similarly, countries like Ghana that has tourism as its fourth foreign income earner, contributing more than over US$ 1 billion a year, have contracted a US$ 1 billion loan facility from the IMF. This has become an all too familiar story across the continent with many African countries with significant tourism industries losing out on tourist dollars.

While tourist dollars have stopped flowing to the continent, for the time being, there is hope, with the UNWTO indicating that confidence in recovery in Africa remains very strong compared to other world regions.

To achieve this, there is the need for the gradual easing of lockdown measures, including the opening of international borders, to allow the inflow of international tourists. Also, African governments should institute safety protocols to guarantee the safety of both tourists and employees at the ports of entry into individual countries, and at tourism facilities and attractions. And African governments through their national tourism organizations can begin to bundle their tourism products to reduce the cost of travel.

The bundling can be done to cut profit margins on individual tourism elements and therefore reduce the overall cost. This will also have the advantage of compelling tourists to visit many attractions and stay longer and thereby spend more at destinations. Tourism facilities can also offer discounts or complementary services to entice customers, especially domestic tourists at the initial stages of re-opening.

Further, there should be aggressive marketing of African destinations in international circles to re-assure Western and, to some extent, Chinese tourists about visiting Africa once more. Lastly, African governments can offer tax exemptions and holidays to tourism businesses to help them recover from the consequences of the pandemic. Such tax holidays and exemptions will help them grow back their earnings into their businesses to recover and grow in the short term.

Fight Against Tuberculosis

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by Senthamaraiselvan Pooja – Art in Tanzania internship

Background of Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborne infectious disease caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The United Republic of Tanzania is one of the 30 countries with the highest burden of TB in the world. According to WHO, 142 000 people (253 per 100 000 population) fell ill with TB in 2018 [1].

A large proportion of persons with the illness (90% to 95%) have latent TB infection (LTBI) in which case they do not exhibit any symptoms as the immune system will contain and control the infection. However, the infection typically does not get eliminated and most people with LTBI do not know that they are infected because they do not feel sick.

The bacteria can remain inactive for many years and the chance of developing active TB decreases over time [2].

Approximately 5% to 10% of individuals are not able to control the initial infection and will develop primary tuberculosis. The dormant bacteria can also become active again in a few of those with LTBI due to various factors that compromise the immune system. Active tuberculosis among this group is referred to as reactivation tuberculosis [3].



Main Differences between Latent and Active TB
Latent TB
●                     TB bacteria are “asleep” in your body
●                     You do not have symptoms and you feel well
●                     You cannot pass TB on to others
●                     It can only be detected through a blood test or TB skin test
 
Active TB
●                     TB bacteria are “awake” and making you ill
●                     You will have symptoms that make you feel unwell
●                     You can pass TB to others if it is in your lungs
●                     It shows up on a chest x-ray if you have TB in the lungs [4]
 
Symptoms of Active TB
Tuberculosis most often affects the lungs and respiratory tract. This is known as pulmonary TB. However, TB can affect almost any organ system. Active tuberculosis can manifest as pulmonary or extrapulmonary disease irrespective of whether the individual is a primary or reactivation case. However, approximately 80% of clinically manifested tuberculosis is pulmonary among individuals with good immune function, while extrapulmonary tuberculosis can be seen more frequently in immunocompromised people.
 
Pulmonary TB can be mild or severe and present with any of the following symptoms: excessive coughing (sometimes with blood in the sputum), chest pain, general weakness, lack of appetite, weight loss, swollen lymph glands, fever, night sweats, chills, and fatigue. Extrapulmonary TB can also present with fever, fatigue, night sweats, and progressive weakness, but prominent symptoms will typically stem from the affected organ system.
 
Extrapulmonary TB commonly involve the pericardium (thin sac surrounding the heart), lymph nodes (small, oval-shaped cluster of immune cells located throughout the body), urogenital area, gastrointestinal tract, central nervous system, adrenal glands, bones, eyes, and skin [3]. If untreated, active TB can be life-threatening.

TB Transmission

TB is spread to susceptible individuals when they breathe in contaminated droplets that are released into the air when an infected person (with Active Tuberculosis) nearby sneezes, coughs, talks or laughs. Humans can also get ill with TB by ingesting unpasteurized milk products contaminated with Mycobacterium bovis, also known as Bovine Tuberculosis [2].

Risk Factors for Progression and Development of Active TB Disease

In general, people at high risk for developing active TB once infected with M. tuberculosis include:

  • People living with HIV/AIDS
  • Children younger than 5 years of age
  • Persons who are receiving immunosuppressive therapy
  • Persons who were recently infected with M. tuberculosis (within the past 2 years)
  • Persons with a history of untreated or inadequately treated TB disease
  • Persons with silicosis, diabetes, chronic renal failure, leukemia, lymphoma, or cancer of the head, neck, or lung
  • Persons who have had a gastrectomy or jejunoileal bypass
  • Persons who weigh less than 90% of their ideal body weight
  • Cigarette smokers and persons who abuse drugs or alcohol
  • Populations defined locally as having an increased incidence of TB disease, possibly including medically underserved or low-income populations [5]

TB Control and Prevention

Individual Level

  • Keep your immune system strong by eating healthy and exercising
  • Avoid exposure to people known to who have active TB.
  • Surgical masks should be worn by patients with active TB to prevent infectious droplets from being expelled into the air.
  • Only consume pasteurized milk products.
  • Travellers at higher risk should have a pre-departure tuberculin skin test (TST) and be re-tested upon their return home.
  • Those at increased risk should also consult their healthcare provider to determine if the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine is recommended [2].

Community Level

There are several critical factors that need to be taken into account to implement an effective tuberculosis control and prevention program to protect the community.

  1. Significant resources including public health infrastructure and personnel are required to enact and sustain tuberculosis control programs. Sustainability is critical because control of this disease requires a long-term effort. As such, a strong commitment by government agencies, which can mobilize the necessary resources and infrastructure, is essential for regional control of tuberculosis.
  • Rigorous case finding and treatment is obviously critical to save the affected individuals as well as stop transmission of infection to contacts. Case identification must combine microscopy and clinical symptoms, and treatment should consist of the short-course of directly observed therapy (DOTS) elaborated below.
  • Exhaustive contact tracing for contacts of each active tuberculosis case should be carried out in the field so that new infections can be identified and treated before becoming active cases.
  • A good surveillance system is fundamental to the control of any infectious disease. An administrative system for recording cases and monitoring outcomes is necessary to estimate the occurrence of disease and identify temporal trends and spatial clusters.
  • An adequate supply of tuberculosis medications must be available to populations with endemic tuberculosis. This may seem obvious, and it is, but unfortunately the lack of a consistent supply of medication has hampered many control programs particularly in poor areas of the developing world [3].

Technology

Germicidal ultraviolet lamps can be installed to kill airborne bacteria in buildings where people at high risk of tuberculosis live or congregate. A germicidal lamp is an electric light that produces ultraviolet C (UVC) light. UVC light kills tuberculosis bacteria, including drug-resistant strains, by damaging their DNA so they cannot infect people, grow or divide [6].

TB Treatment

Treating tuberculosis requires a long-term commitment. Specifically, at least 6 months of treatment are required because of the heterogeneous population of M. tuberculosis in an infected individual, which is composed of bacteria in active and dormant states. Medication that is effective against active mycobacteria may not work against latent mycobacteria and, thus, extended treatment ensures that the whole population of M. tuberculosis will eventually be exposed to the drug. Inactive tuberculosis may be treated with an antibiotic, isoniazid (INH), to prevent the TB infection from becoming active. Active tuberculosis is treated, usually successfully, with isoniazid in combination with one or more of several drugs, including rifampin, ethambutol, pyrazinamide, and streptomycin.

However, drug-resistant TB is a serious, as yet unsolved, public-health problem, among several regions including Africa. Undergoing treatment over a long time favors the emergence of drug-resistance gene mutations in the M. tuberculosis population.

Thus, at least two effective drugs must be administered: this reduces the probability of developing drug-resistant bacilli.

Poor patient compliance, lack of detection of resistant strains, and unavailable therapy are also key reasons for the development of drug-resistant TB. Non-adherence can lead to treatment failure in the individual as well as the development of antibiotic resistant forms of M. tuberculosis.

Therefore, adherence to treatment with the full regimen is essential for treatment success. To effect complete resolution of infection in the individual and mitigate the spread of antibiotic resistance in the population, WHO recommends the short-course strategy of directly observed therapy (DOTS) regimen, comprised of four drugs (typically isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol) for two months, followed by two drugs (typically isoniazid and rifampicin) for four months.

DOTS regimen requires a healthcare worker to monitor each tuberculosis patient closely and observe the patient taking each dose of anti-tuberculosis medication to ensure proper compliance [3].

References

1 https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/united-republic-of-tanzania-tb-community-network-a-platform-for-a-stronger-community-response-to-tuberculosis

2 https://www.iamat.org/country/tanzania/risk/tuberculosis

3 http://www.infectionlandscapes.org/2013/04/tuberculosis.html

4 https://www.thetruthabouttb.org/latent-tb/what-is-latent-tb/

5 https://www.cdc.gov/tb/webcourses/tb101/page121.html

6 https://www.everydayhealth.com/tuberculosis/guide/risk-factors-causes-prevention/

THE IMPORTANCE OF MENSTRUAL HYGIENE EDUCATION TO ADOLESCENCE STAGE IN TANZANIA

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By Rosemary Balyagati – Art in Tanzania internship

Menstruation (also termed period or bleeding) is the process in a woman of discharging (through the vagina) blood and other materials from the lining of the uterus at about one monthly interval, from puberty until menopause (ceasing of regular menstrual cycles), except during pregnancy. This discharging process lasts about 3-5 days.

What are the signs and symptoms of menstruation?

Beside the bleeding, other signs and symptoms of menstruation may include headache, acne, bloating, pains in the low abdomen, tiredness, mood changes, food cravings, breast soreness and diarrhea.

When does menstruation begin? When does it end?

The menstrual cycle is a hormonal driven cycle; day 1 is the first day of your period (bleeding) while day 14 is the approximate day you ovulate, if an egg is not fertilized hormone levels eventually drop and at about day 25 the egg begins to dissolve, and the cycle begins again with the period at about day 30. Menstruation begins day 1 and normally ends days 3-5 of the menstrual cycle.

The average age for a girl to get her first period in the range of age is about 8 to 15 years old. Women usually have periods until about ages 45 to 55.

So at this average age of her first period is the time for menstrual hygienic education has to be given to girls.

Importance of menstrual hygienic education at adolescences stage.

Menstruation is a basic right for women and girls around the world, in many countries there are huge barriers to Menstrual Hygienic education for girls living in poverty. Menstrual hygienic education is essential in ensuring girls get the support they need on their periods and to able to ask questions about menstrual challenges. Menstrual hygienic education is a step towards removing shame from talking about periods for many girls in countries like Tanzania.

Menstruation is seen as taboo in Tanzania; therefore girls feel uncomfortable talking to family, peers and teachers, let alone attending school during their cycle. Most girls during their menstrual period experience stigmatization, this excludes girls from learning about their own bodies and from opportunities to learn about hygiene and use of sanitary products.

Lack of sexual education in schools, particularly in Tanzania, means that boys add to the stigma around periods. Girls are embarrassed by comments made by boys who do not understand menstruation. Menstrual hygienic Education is the key for both male and female students to aid in eradicating period poverty.

Menstrual hygienic education breaks down the barriers faced by girls in Tanzania and many other developing countries. Cultural barriers often stand in the way of providing girls with knowledge and ability to manage their periods, therefore menstrual education provides an open space to break down taboos. By normalizing menstrual education schools will become better equipped with period-friendly toilets and sexual education classes that will benefit all students.

Access to Drinking Water in Africa

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By Atilla Cermikli – Art in Tanzania internship

According to a report in 2018, nearly half of the population in East Africa could not access drinking water and Tanzania caught the average with 49.2% accessible rate.

The main problem is basically investment. Installing the pipe to transport the water needs large investments and since it does not seem profitable by the investors, governments step into funding to cover expenses through supplying bonds. Nevertheless, most of the countries in Africa could not find enough amount of financing. For instance, one report in 2014 indicates that Tanzania has less than 50% of the funds needed to meet Millennium Development Goals (MDG) requirements but have a high-level capacity for investment and it makes Tanzania one of the most applicable countries in Africa.

The latest Glaas report shows that Tanzania is located in the most aided region and got 316 million USD financial aids in 2017, ranked 3rd in Sub-Saharan Africa. Also, Tanzania prepared its financial plans and these financial plans consistently using in the decision-making process. Furthermore, the country has the data for decision-making such as resource allocation, sector review and/or planning processes, national standard or regulation development, targeting surveillance activities both in water-sanitation and drinking water areas.

To reach the national goal Tanzania needs a budget of 237 million USD dollar annually and government finance 154.2 million USD which means Tanzania needs to increase its funding approximately by 35%. Financing of the investments for drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are met between 50%-75%. Tanzania also pursuing regulations and standards in order to attract investors such as on-site sanitation and drinking water standards, audited by the governmental bodies and also by independent observers. Although a sufficient budget is clearly indicated in the plan the government could only bear the implementation expenses between 50%-75% due to lack of foreign-domestic private investments.

Another problem is in the human resources sector. Because of the lack of education in maintenance, designing and construction Tanzania has only between 50%-75% of needed human resources.

Related to water sector development plan for 2018, the approved budget is 319.5 million USD and 42% of the shares are funded by foreigners while 58% of the shares belong to local funders.

           As explained by the numerical data above, Tanzania has to foster investments in every area of the water supply and sanitation such as maintenance, protection of the water resources, management and development.

           The type of investment might be diversified. For instance between 2018-2020, a project led by Water and Development Alliance (WADA) and its key partners in order to provide safe water access through solar power systems.

To sum up, Tanzania is getting more and more attention by years but still, the country struggles with investments and educated human resources and government seems to be the only investor but it is not enough to bear all the expenses. Although Tanzania published guidelines in WASH investment plans, due to lack of profitability it does not attract private investments. USAID defines the reason, while the legal framework is well-defined implementation is not effective at all. Also, investment should be focused on sanitation as well as a water supply but research shows that it is biased in favour of water supply. So it is important to invest in water sanitation since it has added value potential. Performance-based investment plans would run to expand sanitation services. Another reason could be collaboration intention of public agencies with private sector investments. The government enjoys from private sector contemporary technologies and provide technology transfer. Due to lack of integration of water sanitation with healthcare, nutrition and food security investments were not fully effective. For example, water sanitation ameliorates food security so it helps to reach Tanzania Development Vision 2025.

PROTECTION OF THE EARTH IS A MAN FUNDAMENTAL DUTY

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By Godfrido Mallua – Art in Tanzania internship

Genesis 1:26-28

Then, GOD said Let Us make man in our image according to Our likeness; let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air and over cattle, over all earth and over creeping thing that creeps on the earth. So GOD created man in His own image, in the image of GOD he created him; male and female. Then GOD blessed them, be fruitful and multiply, fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves on the earth.

Background

Recently the world has observed human activities that contribute on environmental destruction and leads to climate change. This situation has much been contributed by a lot of factors, some to be Demographically, Politically, Economically etc. Though different initiatives are continuing embarked by government, society, multiple organizations but still the nature and living organism reported to be at high risk of being exposed to unsafe living environments

What should be a man continuing effort on earth protection?

Man efforts depends on several factors which lies behind the policies made by those in power that enforce every human being take responsibility to protect our nature as per country regulation. But also policies itself are never enough to bring change, it also demand self awareness and self initiatives of every human to support those initiatives up on nature protection wisely and meet the will of GOD.

Some efforts which can be embarked by each member of community on protection are elaborated below…

  • Reduce, reuse and recycle: Cut down on what you throw away. Follow the three Rs to conserve natural resources and landfill space
  • Volunteer: Volunteer for cleanups in your community. You can get involved in protecting your watershed too
  • Educate: When you further your own education, you can help others understand the importance and value of our natural resources.
  • Conserve water: The less water you use, the less runoff and wastewater that eventually end up in ocean
  • Shop wisely: Buy less plastic and bring a reusable shopping bag
  • Use long lasting light bulbs: Energy efficient light bulbs reduce greenhouse gas emissions, also flip the lights switch off when you leave the room
  • Plant trees: Trees provide food and oxygen. They help save energy, clean the air and help combat climate change
  • Limit industrial sewage towards water sources: sewage contain a lot of chemicals of which tend to pollute water and even kills living organisms found in water sources
  • Bike more drive less
  • Discourage fire burning into farms and forest areas, illegal pouching, deforestation etc

                   Photo: climbing man around the mountain forests

Tunza mazingira Yakutunze… DBE Jane Goodall Nobel Prize, Un Peace Ambassador once said.

THE PROSPECT FOR TANZANIA ECONOMY AFFECTED BY COVID -19 GLOBAL PANDEMIC

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B Nyamboge Mwema Nyawangwe – Art in Tanzania internship

As well as it is known COVID-19 is a global pandemic in the whole world today. Tanzania is among one of the many countries that has been affected in many ways and one of the major areas is in the economic sector. Since last April to May 2020 there was a huge rise of cases regarding COVID-19 which led to lockdowns including shutting down of various public places like schools. The average has reduced highly since last year since and people are no longer quarantined, despite that, the recently new president ordered for more research/investigation with regard to COVID-19 and measures to prevent it from spreading are still taken. Despite Tanzanian boarders being still open several measures are still undertaken by the government and individuals to protect against the spread of COVID19. Some of these measures include the one’s set by WHO like wearing face masks, social distancing in public places and washing hands or using hand sanitizers.

Given the fact that majority of Tanzanian’s are backward economically and can’t afford means of protections such as hand sanitizers, face masks etc., this people are forced to stay at home as to avoid crowds, hence a lot of people have failed to keep up with their daily jobs. This is especially to rural people who are self-employed hence when they don’t work means no income generated and therefore reduction of expenses reducing general revenues. Some companies also have been forced to deduct  workers’ salaries and also expel some workers as to keep up with the financial flows.

Despite the rate of COVID-19 gradually falling but other countries are still highly affected by the disease which is more likely contributing to affecting Tanzania economy, currently and the future. Some of the major areas directly linked with the economy have shown this impacts.

In Public financing/ Government.

The government is facing and will continue facing problem in public budgeting and social services delivery to its people, this is because it has increased demand for public expenditure mainly in procuring tools needed due to COVID-19 such as sanitizers, medical equipment’s and so forth. The government revenues are expected to keep failing due to variety in cash flow obtained in direct and indirect taxes, levies and fees. As it is known with COVID-19 most of companies decreased workers and also most of workers payments were declined also others were forced to stop working naturally due to factors within.

In tourism sector; 

One of the major sources of the government income in Tanzania is through tourism. Which has far more tattered, very few tourists are coming to the country due to restrictions set in countries hence the demand has quite declined. The government has reckoned that this year probably only few tourists will come to Tanzania for the holidays which is about a quarter of the normal rate. Places like Zanzibar has been so much affected since most of their economy depend on tourism. The chain that links from the places that tourist visited and stayed like hotels to the people working there and the suppliers of products or services their jobs have frozen due lack of tourist.  

                

Trade

Tanzania mostly depends on exported products and very few are made within. Trade global chains are disrupted, and some factories have been shut down, most of products are running out hence sellers lack products to sell and money circulation has been declining. Most of the country boundaries have been closed not allowing products to go out or come in for some time. This has also led to rise of prices of some products causing some people not to afford them which leaves these products unsold especially those that are not basic needs or that are luxurious products. Export and import of products has been generally affected due to shutdown of some factories which has highly affected the economy.

In banks and financial institutions;

This are among major helpers of the economy that have been highly affected due to COVID-19,  there has been reduction of bank deposits given all factors generated that has causes slow generation of income, Foreign financial flows have fallen due to no transactions of money from other countries due to the lockdown hence lack of foreign currency within, also there has been deterioration between the customers and bank relationships since it has been hard  to establish a common ground due to operational challenges from both sides.

Conclusively;

As for Tanzania as long as COVID 19 continues to exist despite it being within the country or outside its impact on the economy will always be valid and continue to affect the major sectors of the economy, which will keep causing decline of general income gained by individuals and the government at large. Such hard times require hard decisions on best measure as to what should be undertaken as to try and maintain the economy to avoid great depression.

Already some measures have been taken as to help overcome the economic problems generated due to COVID-19 for example in banks and financial institutions follows the Bank of Tanzania policies measures, this is by issuing relief packages towards their customers especially the small and medium enterprises which include payment holidays ranging from 3-6 months and restricting of loans to extend repayment periods.

The Impact of Period Poverty in Tanzania

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Art in Tanzania Internship-Tiffany Lo

Managing periods in Tanzania is challenging due to a lack of access to menstrual products and sanitation services. Over 50% of Tanzanians do not have access to improved sanitation and access to clean drinking water is often limited (Moloney, 2020). With a lack of access to menstrual hygiene products, information, and appropriate sanitation services, women and girls are put at risk for poor physical or reproductive health (Moloney, 2020). This also has detrimental effects, as it limits opportunities for girls and women in Tanzania (Moloney, 2020).

Water facilities are not available in 38% of Tanzanian schools, the water facilities are not operational in 46% of the cases, and 64% of school latrines do not have a place to dispose of sanitary pads (Maji Safi Group, 2020). 85% of girls are forced to use unhygienic solutions such as strips of cloth, which can spread fungi and infection due to a lack of sanitation services and menstrual products (Maji Safi Group, 2020). The severe lack of resources often forces girls to use other unsanitary options such as leaves, pieces of a mattress filling, or used cloth (Maji Safi Group, 2020). Using these options could result in infections (Maji Safi Group, 2020).

Because of misinformation, menstruation has negative connotations, girls often face stigma and are made to feel ashamed of themselves and their bodies (Moloney, 2020). Girls often isolate themselves at home during menstruation, sometimes even missing school (Maji Safi Group, 2020). According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), about one in ten African teenage girls that reside in remote areas miss school during their menstruation cycle and eventually drop out of school due to issues that surround period poverty (Maji Safi Group, 2020). According to a study by Tawasanet Menstruation and Health Management, 62% of female students miss school due to physical illness that is a result from menstruation (Maji Safi Group, 2020). As a result, these young women face negative long-term socio-economic and educational effects (Maji Safai Group, 2020).

Pads and menstrual products are also often expensive—for example, sanitary products costs a typical Tanzanian woman 3.4% of her monthly salary, compared to 0.15% for the average American woman (Kottasová, 2018). For some women in rural communities, it can cost even more—even as much as 10% of a woman’s salary (Kottasová, 2018). Period poverty also negatively impacts the economy, as female workers may have to miss several days of work a month when menstruating (Kottasová, 2018). The Tanzanian government reports that 60% of women live in “absolute poverty”, and due to period poverty, women who are already economically disadvantaged to begin with face greater economic hurdles due to factors such as missing and dropping out of school and missing days of work due to being unable to afford menstrual and sanitary products (Kottasová, 2018).

Increasing education on menstrual and reproductive health is essential in combating period poverty in Tanzania (Moloney, 2020). Many organizations are dedicated to ending gender-based discrimination and destigmatize female hygiene, such as the Maji Safi Group, which uses a comprehensive approach which includes community outreach, providing learning materials, after school programs and employing Tanzanian women as community health educators (Moloney, 2020).

Sources:

Kottasová, I. (2018, October 3). When pads are a luxury, getting your period means missing out on life

Maji Safai Group. (2020, December 23). Period Poverty in Tanzania: Menstruation Issues & Sanitation.

Moloney, R. (2020, September 29). Fighting Period Poverty in Tanzania.