Tag: International volunteering

N’GORONGORO CRATER AND CONSERVATION AREA

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By Farzad Ghotaslou – Art in Tanzania, Internship Project

N’Gorongoro is every week destination for Art in Tanzania safari participants. The world-famous crater is part of Serengeti safari and also time to time destination of it own or combined to the visit to Tarangire and Lake Manyara National parks.

Ngorongoro Conservation Area, national conservation area in the Arusha region of northern Tanzania, southeast of Serengeti National Park. Occupying some 3,200 square miles (8,300 square km), it extends over part of the Eastern (Great) Rift Valley of eastern Africa and contains a variety of habitats and landscapes, including grassland plains, savanna woodlands, forests, mountains, volcanic craters, lakes, rivers, and swampland. 

Ngorongoro Crater, one of the world’s largest unbroken calderas, is the most prominent feature of the park. Also located there are the major archaeological sites of Olduvai Gorge and Laetolil, within which were found hominin remains dating from 2.1 million and 3.6 million years ago, respectively. 

The area’s main volcanic formations, including Ngorongoro Crater and the volcanoes Olmoti and Empakaai, formed from 20 million to 2 million years ago. Empakaai Crater is noted for the deep soda lake that occupies nearly half of its caldera floor.

Ngorongoro Conservation Area is host to the largest ungulate herds in the world, including gnu (wildebeests), plains zebras, and Thomson’s and Grant’s gazelles. Predatory animals include lions, spotted hyenas, leopards, and cheetahs. The endangered black rhinoceros and African hunting dog can also be found there. Notable among more than 400 species of birds in the area are flamingos, silvery-cheeked hornbills, superb starlings, and bronze and tacazze sunbirds.

Ngorogoro was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979. Although cultivation is not permitted within the area, some 25,000 to 40,000 Masai are allowed to graze their livestock there. Issues of concern during the latter part of the 20th century were the damage to the ecosystem caused by overgrazing and tourism vehicles and the diminishing of black rhinoceros, leopard, and elephant populations because of poaching.

The Ngorongoro Conservation Area spans vast expanses of highland plains, savanna, savanna woodlands and forests, from the plains of the Serengeti National Park in the north-west, to the eastern arm of the Great Rift Valley. The area was established in 1959 as a multiple land use area, with wildlife coexisting with semi-nomadic Maasai pastoralists practicing traditional livestock grazing.

It includes the spectacular Ngorongoro Crater, the world’s largest caldera, and Olduvai Gorge, a 14km long deep ravine. The property has global importance for biodiversity conservation in view of the presence of globally threatened species such as the black Rhino, the density of wildlife inhabiting the Ngorongoro Crater and surrounding areas throughout the year, and the annual migration of wildebeest, zebra, Thompson’s and Grant’s gazelles and other ungulates into the northern plains.

The area has been subject to extensive archaeological research for over 80 years and has yielded a long sequence of evidence of human evolution and human-environment dynamics, collectively extending over a span of almost four million years to the early modern era.

This evidence includes fossilized footprints at Laetoli, associated with the development of human bipedalism, a sequence of diverse, evolving hominin species within Olduvai gorge, which range from Australopiths such as Zinjanthropus boisei to the Homo lineage that includes Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens; an early form of Homo sapiens at Lake Ndutu; and, in the Ngorongoro crater, remains that document the development of stone technology and the transition to the use of iron.

The overall landscape of the area is seen to have the potential to reveal much more evidence concerning the rise of anatomically modern humans, modern behavior and human ecology.

The Area has yielded an exceptionally long sequence of crucial evidence related to human evolution and human-environment dynamics, collectively extending from four million years ago to the beginning of this era, including physical evidence of the most important benchmarks in human evolutionary development.

Although the interpretation of many of the assemblages of Olduvai Gorge is still debatable, their extent and density are remarkable. Several of the type fossils in the hominin lineage come from this site. Furthermore, future research in the property is likely to reveal much more evidence concerning the rise of anatomically modern humans, modern behavior, and human ecology.

The stunning landscape of Ngorongoro Crater combined with its spectacular concentration of wildlife is one of the greatest natural wonders of the planet. Spectacular wildebeest numbers (well over 1 million animals) pass through the property as part of the annual migration of wildebeest across the Serengeti ecosystem and calve in the short grass plains which straddle the Ngorongoro Conservation Area/Serengeti National Park boundary. This constitutes a truly superb natural phenomenon.

Ngorongoro crater is the largest unbroken caldera in the world. The crater, together with the Olmoti and Empakaai craters are part of the eastern Rift Valley, whose volcanism dates back to the late Mesozoic / early Tertiary periods and is famous for its geology. The property also includes Laetoli and Olduvai Gorge, which contain an important palaeontological record related to human evolution.

The variations in climate, landforms and altitude have resulted in several overlapping ecosystems and distinct habitats, with short grass plains, highland catchment forests, savanna woodlands, montane long grass plains and high open moorlands. The property is part of the Serengeti ecosystem, one of the last intact ecosystems in the world which harbors large and spectacular animal migrations

In relation to natural values, the grasslands, and woodlands of the property support very large animal populations, largely undisturbed by cultivation at the time of inscription. The wide-ranging landscapes of the property were not impacted by development or permanent agriculture at the time of inscription.

The integrity of the property is also enhanced by being part of Serengeti – Mara ecosystem. The property adjoins Serengeti National Park (1,476,300 ha), which is also included on the World Heritage List as a natural property. Connectivity within and between these properties and adjoining landscapes, through functioning wildlife corridors is essential to protect the integrity of animal migrations.

No hunting is permitted in Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), but poaching of wildlife is a continuing threat, requiring effective patrolling and enforcement capacity. Invasive species are a source of ongoing concern, requiring continued monitoring and effective action if detected.

Tourism pressure is also of concern, including in relation to the potential impacts from increased visitation, new infrastructure, traffic, waste management, disturbance to wildlife and the potential for introduction of invasive species.

The property provides grazing land for semi-nomadic Maasai pastoralists. At the time of inscription an estimated 20,000 Maasai were living in the property, with some 275,000 head of livestock, which was considered within the capacity of the reserve.

No permanent agriculture is officially allowed in the property. Further growth of the Maasai population and the number of cattle should remain within the capacity of the property, and increasing decentralization, local overgrazing and agricultural encroachment are threats to both the natural and cultural values of the property.

There were no inhabitants in Ngorongoro and Empaakai Craters or the forest at the time of inscription in 1979.

The property encompasses not only the known archaeological remains but also areas of high archaeo-anthropological potential where related finds might be made. However, the integrity of specific paleo-archaeological attributes and the overall sensitive landscape are to an extent under threat and thus vulnerable due to the lack of enforcement of protection arrangements related to grazing regimes, and from proposed access and tourist related developments at Laetoli and Olduvai Gorge.

The primary legislation protecting the property is the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Ordinance of 1959. The property is under the management of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA). The Division of Antiquities is responsible for the management and protection of the paleo-anthropological resources within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. A memorandum of understanding should be established and maintained to formally establish the relations between the two entities.

Property management is guided by a General Management Plan. Currently, the primary management objectives are to conserve the natural resources of the property, protect the interests of the Maasai pastoralists, and to promote tourism.

The management system and the Management Plan need to be widened to encompass an integrated cultural and natural approach, bringing together ecosystem needs with cultural objectives to achieve a sustainable approach to conserving the Outstanding Universal Value of the property, including the management of grasslands and the archaeological resource, and to promote environmental and cultural awareness.

The Plan needs to extend the management of cultural attributes beyond social issues and the resolution of human-wildlife conflicts to the documentation, conservation and management of the cultural resources and the investigation of the potential of the wider landscape in archaeological terms.

Vehicle access to the crater and other popular areas of the property requires clear limits to protect the quality of experience of the property and to ensure natural and cultural attributes are not unduly disturbed. Developments and infrastructure for tourism or management of the property that impinge on its natural and cultural attributes should not be permitted.

Considering the important relationship, in natural terms of the property to adjoining reserves, it is important to establish effective and continuing collaboration between the property, Serengeti National Park, and other areas of the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem to assure connectivity for wildlife migrations, and harmonize management objectives regarding tourism use, landscape management and sustainable development.

References:

1.Wikiepedia

2.TripAdvisor

3.Britanica

4.Unesco official website

5. www.ncaa.go.tz

Climate Change and Sustainability

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By Grace Lewis – Art in Tanzania internship

Contribution of Anthropogenic Activities on global warming and the thei specific mitigation measures.

ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES:  these are human activities which contributes to an increasingly influence in the climate change and the earth’s temperature by burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests and farming livestock.

This thereby adds enormous amounts of greenhouse gases to those naturally occurring, thus in the atmosphere, increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming

List of Anthropogenic Activities

Anthropogenic activities include all human activities either for development or influential for survival support thus they include:

  • Agriculture and farming
  • Industrialization
  • Transportation
  • Buildings
  • Deforestation
  • Energy supply

Effects of Anthropogenic Activities

Generally, anthropogenic activities generally contribute to an additional production and emission of greenhouse gases, more than the expected normal occurrence of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, whereas the greenhouse gases expected in the atmosphere are:

  • Methane
  • Water vapour
  • Nitrous oxide
  • Ozone
  • Chlorofluorocarbons  (CFS)
  • Carbon dioxide

Mitigation Measures

Agriculture and Farming

1. Emission Reduction through improved:    

  • Rice cultivation
    • Animal husbandry
    • Fertilizer application
    • Cultivation methods

2. Carbon Sequestration through:     

  • Agro-forestry
    • Agricultural tree crops
    • Soil carbon storage
    • “No till” cropping

Industrialization

  • Research, development, and commercial demonstration of new technologies and processes
  • Tax incentives for energy efficiency, fuel switching, and reduction in GHG emissions
  • Removal of market barriers
  • Government procurement programs
  • Emission and efficiency standards
  • Voluntary agreements

Transportation

  • Fuel Efficiency Improvements for Vehicles
    • Changes in vehicle and engine design (e.g., hybrids)
  • Alternative Fuel Sources
    • Hydrogen or electricity from renewable power
    • Biomass fuels, CNG, LPG, etc.
    • Fuel cell technology
  • Infrastructure and System Changes
    • Traffic and fleet management systems
    • Mass transportation systems and improved land-use planning.
    • Modal shifts
  • Transport Demand Management
    • Reducing travel demand (e.g., through land use changes, telecommunications, etc.)
  • Market-based Instruments
    • Increase in fuel tax
    • Incentives for mass transport systems
    • Fiscal incentives and subsides for alternative fuels and vehicles
    • Incentives through vehicle taxes and license fees for more efficient vehicles
  • Regulatory Instruments
    • Fuel economy standards
    • Vehicle design or alternative fuel mandates
  • Direct Investment by Governments

Building

  • Building Equipment
    • Energy efficient space and heating (heat pumps, CHP)
    • Efficient lighting, air conditioners, refrigerators, and motors
    • Efficient cook stoves, household appliances, and electrical equipment
    • Efficient building energy management and maintenance
  • Building Thermal Integrity
    • Improved insulation and sealing
    • Energy-efficient windows
    • Proper building orientation
  • Using Solar Energy
    • Active and passive heating and cooling; climate-sensitive design
    • Effective use of natural light (“day lighting”)

Deforestation

Reducing GHG emissions through:

  • Conservation and protection
    • Efficiency improvements
    • Fossil fuel substitution

            2. Sequestering carbon through:

  • Increased forest area
    • Increased vegetation cover
    • Increased carbon storage in soils
    • Conversion of biomass to long-term products

Energy Supply

  • For mitigation, focus should be on renewable biomass, which has no net CO2 emissions.
  • Modern conversion of biomass into electricity, liquid and gaseous fuels shows great promise.
  • In addition, co-firing 10-15% biomass with coal can reduce GHG emissions

Generally

“Changes of human conducts from environmentally unfriendly to friendly activities is of paramount importance to safeguard our planet, thus sustainability will always be a vocabulary in our dictionary”

BY GRACE LEVIS

HIV AND AIDS IN TANZANIA

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By Gwamaka Mwakyusa – Art in Tanzania internship

2018, 1.6 million people were living with HIV in Tanzania. This equates to an estimated HIV prevalence among adults of 4.6%. In the same year, 72,000 people were newly infected with HIV, and 24,000 people died from an AIDS-related illness.

Despite the numbers, Tanzania has done well to control the HIV epidemic over the last decade. Scaling up access to antiretroviral treatment (ART) has meant that between 2010 and 2018, the number of new infections declined by 13% and the number of people dying from an AIDS-related illness has halved.

Key affected populations in Tanzania

Tanzania’s HIV epidemic is generalized, meaning it affects all sections of society, but there are also concentrated epidemics among certain population groups, such as people who inject drugs, men who have sex with men, mobile populations, and sex workers. Heterosexual sex accounts for the vast majority (80%) of HIV infections in the country and women are particularly affected.

The severity of the epidemic varies geographically. Some regions of Tanzania report no HIV prevalence (Kusini Unguja and Kaskazini Pemba) while other regions have prevalence as high as 11.4% (Njombe). Overall, the epidemic has remained steady due to ongoing new infections, population growth and increased access to treatment.

Bar graph showing HIV prevalence by age and sex in Tanzania

Women

Women are disproportionately affected by HIV in Tanzania. In 2018, 880,000 women aged 15 and over were living with HIV, compared to 580,000 adult men. In the same year, more than 36,000 women acquired HIV, compared to around 27,000 men.

The nationally representative 2016-2017 Tanzania Impact Survey (THIS) found that women aged 15-39 are more than twice as likely to be living with HIV as their male counterparts. HIV prevalence is highest among women aged 45-49, at 12% (compared with 8.4% among men of this age

Gender inequality is widespread among women of all ages in Tanzania. In 2016, around 30% of women aged 15-49 who had ever been married or in a long-term relationship were estimated to have experienced physical or sexual violence from a male intimate partner in the past 12 months.9 This increases many women’s vulnerability to HIV, either directly, through sexual violence, or indirectly, through an inability to negotiate condoms or prevent their partner from having other sexual relationships.

In addition, women tend to become infected earlier because they have older partners and get married earlier.

Young people

It is estimated that more than half the population in Tanzania are aged 19 and under.11

THIS reported HIV prevalence among young people (ages 15-24) at 1%, with young women around four times more likely than young men to be living with HIV (2% prevalence among young women, compared to 0.6% prevalence among young men). Prevalence among children (ages 0-14) is 0.3%.

In 2018, just under 24,000 young people in Tanzania became HIV-positive; roughly two-thirds of whom were young women (16,000 new infections among young women, compared to 7,600 among young men).13 In 2016/17, 3.4% of women aged 20-24 were living with HIV, compared to 0.9% of their male counterparts.

The disparity between the sexes is linked to age-related vulnerabilities experienced by young women that intersect with widespread gender inequality. For instance, Tanzania’s ‘sugar daddy’ culture, in which young women embark on sexual relationships with older men in exchange for material goods or social advancement, is a key driver of HIV among young women.

Even though their partners come from age groups with higher HIV prevalence than younger men, and may also engage in other sexual relationships, young women are often unable to negotiate condom use due to the unequal power balance in these relationships. This is demonstrated by a study involving 18 to 24 year-old women in Dar es Salaam, which found that in couples of the

Same age decisions about condom use were together (48%) or by young women alone (34%). Decision-making during sex with older men was predominantly made by the male partner (79%).

Many young people are also unaware about how to prevent transmission. In 2016/17, just 37% of young people demonstrated adequate knowledge on how to prevent HIV and could correctly reject common misconceptions about how the virus is transmitted.17 Young people, particularly young men, are also less likely than older age groups to test for HIV. As a result, in 2016/17 it was estimated that only half of young people living with HIV were aware of their status.

People who inject drugs (PWID)

Tanzania is home to a significant population of people who inject drugs (sometimes referred to as PWID). In 2014, Tanzania National AIDS Control Program (NACP) estimated there were 30,000 people who inject drugs in the country, 35% of whom were living with HIV.

HIV prevalence among women who inject drugs is thought to be twice that of their male peers. The reasons for this are not fully known although possible factors include women who inject drugs being involved in sex work or being last in line when syringes are shared.

Data on people who inject drugs varies widely between studies, due to the hidden nature of this population. Existing evidence suggests heroin use is on the rise and this population group is growing.

Most studies involving people who inject drugs in Tanzania have been conducted in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar. Zanzibar is a gateway to the African continent and is also situated along a major corridor for drug trafficking. Around one in six people who live in Zanzibar and inject drugs is living with HIV, according to 2010 estimates, although some believe this figure be higher

A 2015 study of 480 people who use drugs in the northwestern city of Mwanza found that 13.5% of respondents injected drugs, 67% of whom shared needles. This study suggests that injecting drug use, particularly heroin, is now a significant issue in a major city outside Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar.

Mobile populations

Migration is common in Tanzania. In particular, the expansion of the mining sector has led to greater urbanization and mobility between rural and urban areas. This means that young and sexually active men come into close contact with ‘high risk sexual networks’ made up of sex workers, women at truck stops and miners: all of whom have high levels of HIV prevalence.

Long-distance truck drivers, agricultural plantation workers and fishermen working along coastal trading towns are also at an increased risk of HIV. For example, a 2015 study by the International Organization for Migration on truck drivers in Dar es Salaam found all those surveyed had established sexual relationships with partners at truck stops whom they considered permanent or second wives (described as ‘Mapoza’). A 2018 study involving around 400 people from fishing communities in Tanzania found an overall HIV prevalence of 14%, although this varied widely depending on location, from 7.2% to 23.8%. Around 38% of study participants living with HIV who had been diagnosed had not started treatment.

It is not only mobile men who are at increased risk of HIV infection. Women who travel away from home five or more times in a year have been found to be twice as likely to be infected with HIV than women who do not travel.

Sex workers

Tanzania criminalizes sex work, and it is punishable by law. Despite this, it is estimated that around 150,000 people, mainly women, sell sex, especially in Dar-es-Salaam.

In 2018, HIV prevalence among female sex workers was estimated at 15.4%. However, as with many other key population groups, data is limited and previous estimates suggest HIV prevalence among this group is much higher, at around 31%. Around 70% of sex workers are estimated to use condoms. This is despite sex workers having poor access to HIV prevention

programs, which are thought to reach around one in five.

The gender inequalities that result in women being disproportionately affected by HIV in Tanzania are acutely felt by female sex workers. The fact that sex work is also illegal means sex workers are subject to abuse and human rights violations from clients and from those in authority, including police officers and healthcare workers.

This means many sex workers are reluctant to access HIV prevention, testing and treatment services while also being exposed to high levels of sexual violence, multiple partners and condom less sex.

Men who have sex with men (MSM)

Same-sex sexual relations are illegal in Tanzania. As a result, data on this population group is extremely limited, a situation made worse by a government-sanctioned crackdown on LGBT people that began in 2015.

In 2018, 8.4% of men who have sex with men (sometimes referred to as MSM) in Tanzania were estimated to be living with HIV.36 However previous estimates released in 2014 put prevalence much higher, at 25%. This data suggested there were 49,700 men who have sex with men in the country.

In 2014, only around 14% of men who have sex with men reported using condoms consistently. However, data from 2013 put condom use levels at 63%, highlighting how patchy the evidence currently is.

HIV testing and counselling (HTC) in Tanzania

Results from THIS suggests around 65% of adults in Tanzania have taken an HIV test at least once (59% of men and 71% of women) but only a third regularly test for HIV (every 12 months). Around 16% of adults who tested positive during THIS had never been tested for HIV before (20% of men and 14% of women).

Adolescents (ages 15-19) have particularly low testing levels, despite high levels of sexual activity. THIS found that around 79% of adolescent men and 61% of adolescent women had never tested for HIV before.

Over the last decade, Tanzania has increased its efforts to get more people testing for HIV. The number of voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) sites in the country has rapidly expanded (around 2,100 as of  2013).

In the same year Tanzania introduced new HIV testing approaches such as home-based testing, community testing and provider-initiated testing.

Since other testing approaches, such as index testing, have also been introduced. As a result of these accelerated efforts, in 2018 the number of people living with HIV who were aware of their status was 78%, compared with 64% in 2015.

In 2018 the Tanzanian government began to fully scale-up self-testing for HIV and is focusing on providing self-testing kits for hard-to-reach groups. For example, using antennal clinics to provide pregnant women with self-testing kits to pass onto their husbands or boyfriends. Pilot programs are also being carried out to learn how best to provide self-testing kits to the partners of sex workers and other key and vulnerable populations.

The Tanzanian government has also begun a campaign called Furaha Yangu! (My Happiness!) to increase the number of young men and adolescent boys testing for HIV.

HIV prevention programs in Tanzania

In 2018, 72,000 people became HIV-positive in Tanzania. Although new infections have declined by 13% since 2010, more needs to be done to reduce HIV transmission.

Tanzania is currently implementing its fourth Health Sector HIV and AIDS Strategic Plan (HSHSP IV), which runs between 2017 and 2022. The strategy aims to increase access to combination prevention services for the general population in order to reduce new HIV infections. The guidelines also commit to implementing comprehensive prevention services for a number of key populations, including adolescent girls and young women, female sex workers, men who have sex with men, people who inject drugs, prisoners and migrant populations.

Significant progress that has been made in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) in the past few years in Tanzania. In 2018, 93% of pregnant women living with HIV were receiving effective ART, compared to 75% in 2010. It is estimated that ART coverage among pregnant women living with HIV has averted around 14,000 new infections among newborns. However, 8,600 children still acquired HIV in 2018.

One of the reasons for HIV transmission still occurring vertically (from parent to child) is that  not all pregnant women are tested for HIV. In 2018, 91% of pregnant women attending antenatal services received HIV testing. In addition, only half (47%) of infants exposed to HIV during pregnancy were tested for HIV within eight weeks of birth (known as ‘early infant diagnosis’).

To reach as many women as possible, the vast majority of PMTCT services are now integrated with reproductive and child health services.

Inefficient antiretroviral drug regimens for pregnant women and new mothers, drug stock-outs and poor adherence to treatment also contribute to the continuing transmission of HIV via this route.

Condom promotion

The Tanzanian government recognizes condom promotion as an integral part of its fight against the epidemic. The goal of its 2017-2022 HIV prevention strategy is to ensure 85% of people engaged in multiple sexual partnerships use condoms correctly and consistently.

To achieve this, around 260 million free condoms must be made available annually. However, weak supply lines and a lack of funding means this may not be achievable. In 2018, it was reported that the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria would finance 120 million public sector condoms, PSI would contribute around 18 million and an additional 20 million would be provided by other sources. This leaves an impending shortfall of around 100 million condoms.

In addition, more effective promotion is needed to encourage people to use condoms. In 2017, it was reported that just 30% of women and 46% of men used a condom the last time they had a sex with a non-marital, non-cohabiting partner. These levels are lower than previously reported, suggesting more people are engaging in risky sexual behavior that leaves them vulnerable to HIV infection

Low condom use is also occurring among high-risk groups. For instance, a study involving 18 to 24 year-old women in Dar-es-salaam found that only 32% used a condom during sex with regular boyfriends. Condom use declined even further if the women were involved in transactional sexual relationships with older men, with only 2% saying they always used a condom during these types of sexual encounters.

HIV awareness and sex education

While Tanzania has a broad sex education curriculum, only a third of schoolteachers have been trained on how to deliver these lessons, meaning access is patchy. In addition, certain subjects, such as the examination of minority sexualities, are not covered. Condom demonstration and condom distribution is also not allowed during sex education lessons. On top of this, the number of people attending school beyond primary level is low, with only around 19% of people having some form of secondary education. This limits the opportunities to reach older adolescents with sexual health education.

To fill these gaps, a number of civil society organizations provide additional sexual and reproductive health and HIV education, in and out of school settings.

Voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC)

Circumcision is an effective HIV prevention strategy, reducing a man’s risk of acquiring HIV by approximately 60%. When used in combination with other prevention measures, circumcision is an important addition to HIV-prevention options for men.

In 2010 the government prioritized 11 regions for scaling VMMC and set a target of 2.8 million circumcisions by 2016.60 Around 2.6 million men were circumcised between 2015 and 2018, equating to around 80% of 15 to 49-year-old men.

CASE STUDY: Creating demand for VMMC

When a VMMC project was first established in the Kaliua District, Tabora, many men were put off by rumors that the removed foreskins would be used for conducting rituals. To dispel these rumors and create demand for the service, peer educators from the project hold meeting with community leaders to answer specific questions and address any concerns about the safety of VMMC and the disposal of foreskins.

Targeting influential people within the community paid off. The number of people presenting for voluntary circumcision, which had previously been visited predominantly by boys from a nearby primary school, subsequently increased to an average of between 20-28 adult men each day.

The local outreach site and dispensary conducted more than 1,000 VMMCs in 2015.

Cash transfer programs

Cash transfer programs form part of a new arm of HIV prevention that focuses on integrated programs for social protection schemes and sexual health. Across sub-Saharan Africa these types of programs have been shown to have a positive effect on preventing HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

In one Tanzanian pilot, cash incentives of US$10 or US$20 were given to young adults aged between 18 and 30, as long as they were free from STIs. One year into the study, there was a 25% risk reduction in STIs. These programs show that economic benefit can positively influence people to use condoms more frequently.

In 2017 the Tanzanian government, in collaboration with UNICEF, began a cash transfer scheme called Cash Plus as part of a program to empower and strengthen the resilience and wellbeing of adolescents from the country’s poorest households. Cash Plus participants receive tailored, life skills training on various subjects, including sexual and reproductive health, as well as being linked to sexual and reproductive health and HIV services. They also receive financial support to either stay in school or start a small business and are supported by mentors and peer educators throughout.

Harm reduction

In 2011, with assistance from PEPFAR, Tanzania became the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to implement a harm reduction program for people who inject drugs. A methadone treatment clinic opened up in Tanzania’s largest health facility, based in Dar es Salaam, then extended to a second hospital in the city.  Although there has since been an increase in opioid substitution therapy (OST) interventions outside Dar es Salaam, access remains limited, with just 20% of people who inject drugs able to access OST in 2018.

This is also the case with needle and syringe exchanges. In 2017, just 15 needles and syringes were distributed per person per year. As a result, it is estimated that around 14% of Tanzanian-based people who inject drugs are sharing needles when injecting.

Harm Reduction International also reports that the Tanzanian government has taken “regressive steps” in its harm reduction-related policy in recent years, with policy-makers continuing to favor abstinence-based approaches above harm reduction.

Pre exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)

In 2018 Tanzania began to scale up pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), a daily course of antiretroviral drugs taken by HIV-negative people to protect themselves from infection, for key populations. The following year, the government announced plans to extend this nationwide, including expanding eligibility criteria to include adolescent girls and young women.

As of 2019, it was estimated that between 3,200 and 3,700 people were using PrEP in Tanzania. Most of these people are adolescent girls and young women, although female sex workers and their partners and the HIV-negative partners of people living with HIV are also being targeted by implementation or demonstration projects.

Antiretroviral treatment (ART) in Tanzania

Tanzania has significantly scaled up its antiretroviral (ART) programs in recent years, and the number of people on ART has been steadily increasing since 2010.

In 2017, Tanzania introduced the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended ‘test and treat’ guidelines, which makes anyone testing positive for HIV eligible for immediate treatment regardless of the level of HIV in their body. This has seen ART coverage expand significantly: in 2018, 71% of people living with HIV in Tanzania were receiving ART, equivalent to 1.1 million people.

This is around a 20% increase from 2015, when 52% of HIV-positive people were on ART. As of 2018, around 90% of people diagnosed with HIV began ART in less than seven days.

HIV-positive women are far more likely to be on treatment than HIV-positive men. In 2018, 82% of women and 57% of men living with HIV were receiving ART.

Children (ages 0-14) are less able to access treatment than adults, with 65% of HIV-positive children on ART in 2018. However, this is an improvement on 2015 levels when just 53% of HIV- positive children were on treatment.

More than 95% of people on treatment are still in care after 12 months, according to 2018 data. This is closely linked to good levels of viral suppression. In 2018, 87% of people diagnosed and on treatment were virally suppressed, with men and women enjoying similar levels of viral suppression (86% and 89% respectively). However, due to gaps in testing and linkage to care, overall, only 62% of people living with HIV are virally suppressed.

Studies conducted in various regions of Tanzania have reported low linkage to care for people who test HIV-positive. For example, a study following around 1,000 people newly diagnosed with HIV in Mbeya, a rural area, found just 28% were successfully linked to care. Under-resourced, poorly coordinated health services, as well as high levels of HIV-related stigma were the main reasons these people did not begin treatment.

The Tanzanian government has begun to simplify drug regimens and move to fixed-dose combinations while phasing out toxic drugs such as Stavudine. Evidence is currently mixed as to whether levels of pre-treatment and acquired drug-resistant HIV are high enough to be considered a public health issue in Tanzania.

Civil society’s role

Poverty, poor institutional and infrastructural support, and social and cultural neglect are impeding an effective and progressive HIV response in Tanzania. In 2017, Civicus, the global alliance of civil society organizations and activists dedicated to strengthening citizen action and civil society, placed the country on a watch list due to growing threats to civic space. In February of the same year, the government closed 40 healthcare facilities providing HIV services under the premise that they were promoting homosexuality. In June 2017, President Magufuli severely criticized NGOs working for the rights of LGBTI people.

In 2018, Tanzania’s sustained anti-gay crackdown was part of a broader trend of suppression and a disappearing civil society voice. The repercussions have been felt through all key population groups, affecting access to HIV and sexual health services, and increasing stigma and discrimination.86 It has also resulted in hundreds of LGBT activists going into hiding in order to avoid punishment.

They are raiding houses. It is a horrible thing. It is just going to get worse. So many people are leaving the city, running away. They are targeting the activists, saying we are promoting homosexuality.

The WHO classifies Tanzania within the top 20 high burden countries for tuberculosis (TB) and for TB/HIV.

In 2017, just under 70,000 cases of TB were presented and 98% had a known HIV status. Of this group, 31% were co-infected with HIV, of whom 95% were on antiretroviral treatment. In the same year, 22,000 people living with HIV died due to TB. The death rate has halved since 2010 when there were 44,000 TB-related deaths among HIV-positive people in Tanzania.

The government has prioritized the integration of TB services with HIV services to minimize the burden of these two co-morbidities. Ensuring that people living with HIV are on antiretroviral treatment means that they are in a better place to fight off TB infection. Integrating these two services will also ensure greater access to TB treatment.

The Tanzanian government has done well to keep the country on track to reaching all of the TB targets set within the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) frameworks.

The number of people living with HIV who presented with TB and received treatment for HIV and TB increased from 16% in 2012 to 42% in 2017.92 However, this still leaves a large portion of people with HIV/TB co-infected without comprehensive treatment.

Taking actions to reduce neonatal disorders

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By Pooja Senthamaraiselvan – Art in Tanzania internship

Tanzania is making great strides in reducing child mortality, but has demonstrated slower progress in reducing neonatal deaths. There has been a declining trend in NMR over the past decade but it indicates a very gradual improvement. In order to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 4 for child survival, the number of newborn deaths in Tanzania must be greatly reduced. At the current rate of progress, Millennium Development Goal 4 could be met, if more attention is given to newborn survival [1].

Most neonatal deaths are due to preventable and treatable causes. Up to two-thirds of newborn lives could be saved if essential care reached mothers and babies [1]. Hence, there are opportunities to lower mortality rates even further with interventions at both the health facility level and the community level in Tanzania to ensure better healthcare provision to these parties.

This will mainly require implementing improvements in resources for maternal and neonatal care in terms of quality, availability, accessibility, and affordability as well as creating more awareness about birth plans for labour and delivery among the people in Tanzania, particularly pregnant women.

Actions at the health facility level to save newborn lives

  • Improve infrastructure and supplies – ensuring every district hospital has a neonatal unit, practices Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) and all health facilities have functional equipment and essential drugs such as gentamicin for treating neonatal sepsis
  • Recruit and retain quality staff – filling vacant posts and addressing turnover among existing staff; ensuring competence in key skills such as neonatal resuscitation
  • Improve guidelines and service delivery – establishing or improving procedures for routine postnatal care and management of preterm and sick newborns
  • Integrate services – linking emergency obstetric services with newborn care and improving transport and referral mechanisms
  • Use data locally for quality improvement – recording and auditing neonatal deaths and stillbirths [1]

Actions at the family and community level to save newborn lives

  • Identify a means to reach every mother and baby in the early postnatal period (within the first two days after birth)
  • Invest in primary health care at the village level by ensuring appropriate supervision, remuneration and working conditions for village health workers
  • Strengthen community – Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) to effectively reinforce healthy behaviours, recognition of danger signs and timely care seeking, to identify harmful traditional practices and awareness of key newborn health packages, such as routine postnatal care, KMC and IMCI
  • Engage communities in birth preparedness, including planning to give birth at a health facility and emergency transport
  • Reduce the economic burden of a facility birth on women and their families [1]

These actions depend on leadership at all levels. Tanzania’s decentralised health system ensures that public health interventions are linked to those who need them but more effort is needed to integrate newborn health packages into district level budgets and planning. Newborn lives can be saved by implementing appropriate policies, improving staffing levels and supervision in health facilities and providing an enabling environment for community-level care.

There is an immediate opportunity for Tanzania to implement the recommendations within the Road Map/One Plan to improve newborn health from the highest level in both public and private health facilities and to infl uence the care newborns receive at home.

Tanzania’s future depends on the ability of these newborns to survive and thrive. This situation analysis sheds light on the current state of care and the opportunities to save lives. While better data, policy change and revised guidelines will make a difference, it takes people to act to save newborn lives. Will you use this information to become a champion of the country’s most vulnerable and precious citizens?

References

[1]https://www.countdown2015mnch.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Tanzania_SituationAnalysis_Newborn.pdf

Katavi National Park

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By Farzad Ghotaslou – Art in Tanzania Internship Project

Due to its long distance Art in Tanzania team goes rather seldom to Katavi. We need minimum 3 participants to make the long drive to Katavi and back to keep the cost reasonable. However Katavi is always worth it as it is still the real wilderness of Africa.

Katavi National Park, located about 35 km southwest of Mpanda, is the third largest national park in Tanzania (added to the two contiguous “game reserves”, the protected area extends over a territory of 12,500 sq km) , as well as one of its most pristine natural areas. Although this is an isolated and less crowded alternative to other such destinations around Tanzania (Serengeti National Park receives more visitors per day than Katavi receives throughout the year), the lodges here are luxurious. as in any other park in the country, and for backpackers it is one of the cheapest and easiest to reach destinations; as long as you have the time and energy to get here.

The park is named after the Wabende spirit, Katabi, who according to local legend lives in a tamarind tree near Lake Katavi. Locals looking for blessings from his spirit still leave offerings at the foot of the tree. The area was first protected in 1911 during the German occupation and was later named Rukwa Game Reserve under British occupation until 1932. In 1974, an area of just over 2,200 km² was declared a National Park and the larger area was finally gazetted in 1996 and opened officially with the name Katavi National Park in 1998.

The main feature of the Katavi territory is its vast (425 sq km) alluvial plain, the Katisunga Plain, whose wide grassy expanses occupy the heart of the park. In the western and central part of the park the plain gives way to large tracts of scrub and forest, and these are the best places to spot tawny antelopes and black antelopes; along with Ruaha National Park, Katavi is one of the few places where you have a good chance of seeing both of these species. Some small rivers and large swamps that do not dry up during the dry season are the ideal habitat for hippos and crocodiles; moreover, the Katavi is populated by about 400 species of birds.

Wildlife features include large animal herds, particularly of Cape Buffaloes, zebras, wildebeest, giraffes, and elephants, plus along the Katuma river, crocodiles and hippopotami which upon annual dry seasons results in mud holes that can be packed with hundreds of hippos. Carnivorous animals that roam this park are cheetahs, wild dogs, hyenas, leopards, and lions. Some sources claim a very high biodiversity in the park, although there are also reports of wildlife decline due to illegal hunting and poaching, presumably ‘bushmeat’ sustenance. Katavi has fewer human visitors and jeeps conducting game drives than other Tanzania parks.

Art in Tanzania safaris. Tansanian safarit

It is during the dry season, when the floodwaters retreat, that Katavi truly comes into life. The Katuma, reduced to a shallow muddy trickle, forms the only source of drinking water for miles around, and the flanking floodplains support game concentrations that defy belief. An estimated 4,000 elephants might converge on the area, together with several herds of 1,000-plus buffalo, while an abundance of giraffes, zebras, impalas and reedbucks provide easy pickings for the numerous lion prides and spotted hyena clans whose territories converge on the floodplains.

Katavi’s most singular wildlife spectacle is provided by its hippos. Towards the end of the dry season, up to 200 individuals might flop together in any riverine pool of sufficient depth. And as more hippos gather in one place, so does male rivalry heat up – bloody territorial fights are an everyday incident, with the vanquished male forced to lurk hapless on the open plains until it gathers sufficient confidence to mount another challenge.

The number of visitors to the park on an annual basis is extremely low, in comparison to better known parks, just above 1,500 foreign visitors out of a total 900,000 registered in the whole Tanzania National Parks system during 2012/13. A survey of the actual rooms sold by the available ‘Safari’ style accommodations might reveal the number, but based on total room count and season length, an upper limit can also be estimated. In addition to a public campsite (located at SO 06’39’19.1 E0 031’08’07.9), as of 2013, there were only three permanent camps permitted to operate at Katavi, namely the Mbali Mbali Katavi Lodge and the Foxes on the Katuma Plain and the Chada on the Chada Plain. These camps each have a visitor capacity limit of approximately one dozen each.

Getting to Katavi for visitors will likely be arranged by the hosting camp, with one of the available charter flight services being the Mbali Mbali Shared Charter (operated by Zantas Air Services) or Safari Air Link. All flights will require landing on a dirt airstrip; the Ikuu airstrip (near the Ikuu Rangerpost) has minimal services. It is very approximately a three-hour flight from Katavi to Dar es Salaam and two-hours flight to Mwanza via a small, bush-compatible light aircraft. A flight to Arusha is similarly ~3 hours distant and operates on limited service usually only twice a week on Mondays and Thursdays.

Access to Katavi via ground transportation: estimates vary widely; it is generally discussed not in hours but in days. The town of Mbeya is (550 km/340 miles) distant and is described as a “…tough but spectacular…” drive; Google Maps indicates that Mbeya is 838 km from Dar es Salaam, making the total distance approximately 1,400 km (870 mi) and requiring 20+ hours. The most direct route to Dar es Salaam as per Google Maps is approx. 1250 km (~800 miles) and requiring 16+ hours. Arusha is similarly distant: 1000+km /13.5 hours. The percentage of transit on unpaved surfaces is unknown, but parts of all of these routes will definitely be on dirt roads. Since all of the above times from Google Maps assume an average transit speed of 80 km (50 mph), all these indicated travel times should be considered to be optimistic.

The park no longer offers vehicle rentals, but Marula Expeditions charges US $ 150 to US $ 200 per day depending on how far you want to travel, while the less flexible Riverside Camp (see Overnight) offers two off-road vehicles with canopies. retractable at a cost of US $ 250 per day.

Walking safaris (short / long US $ 10/15 per group) are permitted with the accompaniment of an armed forest ranger; Bush camping is also allowed (US $ 50 per person plus walking fee) throughout the park, making it a great option for the budget traveler. However, keep in mind that this is one of the most infested parks with tsetse flies. The road to Lake Katavi, another of the seasonal floodplains, is a good destination for walking; the road starts from the park management offices, so you don’t need any vehicles.

The main activity, of course, is game viewing, which can be done on both game drives and guided walking safaris. The bonus of game drives in Katavi National Park is that you’re unlikely to come across any other humans. Walking safaris are an experience not to be missed to really get up close to the African bush, its sights, sounds and aromas.

Fly camping is offered. This is the definition of bush camping, where normal tents (don’t expect luxury!) are set up in the bush at a temporary campsite. No fences, no flush toilets or showers. It’s living in the wild; cooking food over a fire and spending evenings chatting around the campfire, staring up at the breathtaking African night sky and listening to the nocturnal calls of wild animals.

Katavi National Park offers great game viewing all year around but reaches its peak during the dry season from June to November or December when the animals gather in their thousands around scarce water sources.

During the wet season, the floodplains turn to lakes and offer spectacular birdwatching opportunities.

References

  1.  “Tanzania National parks Corporate Information”. Tanzania Parks. TANAPA. Archived from the original on 20 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
  2.  Katavi NPArchived 2008-02-06 at the Wayback Machine information from tanzaniaparks.com
  3. ^Parks arrivals highlightArchived 2015-12-20 at the Wayback Machine from tanzaniaparks.com
  4.  Campsite info from tanzaniaparks.com
  5.  Katuma Bush Lodge official site
  6.  Foxes of Africa official website
  7.  Chada Camp official website
  8.  Safari Aviation official website
  9.  Highway route on Google Maps
  10. Wikipedia

CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR IN TANZANIA

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By Rosemary David – Art in Tanzania internship

Child labour or child labor refers to the exploitation of children through any form of work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful. Such exploitation is prohibited by legislation worldwide, although these laws do not consider all work by children as child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, family duties, supervised training, and some forms of child work.

All over the world, children are being exploited through child labour. This mentally and physically dangerous work interferes with schooling and long-term development -the worst forms include slavery, trafficking, sexual exploitation and hazardous work that put children at risk of death, injury or disease.

CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR IN TANZANIA

Personal Variables

Physical and mental attributes of children influence their abuse. Physical disabilities have long been associated with child abuse and neglect, as these children are often victims of discrimination, sexual exploitation and social exclusion. More often than seldom, the abused or the victims of abuse do not report such cases to the authority, for fear of reprisal by the abuser who may be a parent and due to ignorance.

Socio – economic Aspects

Modern socio-economic developments have diminished the traditional role and power of women. This change in status, has brought about strains in family life and decreased the value of children, resulting into more frequent occurrences of child abuse and neglect.

Social – cultural Aspects

Social-cultural aspects, play a vital role in contributing to the increasing rate of child labour in many developing countries today. Traditionally, children have been viewed as personal property and were generally expected to work. There was a maximum division of labour, where girls were expected to do all the house chores and the boys went hunting. These roles were meant to prepare the children for future adulthood, especially girls who were often subjected to early marriages when they clocked the age of puberty, while their male counterparts went to school. It is however important to note that, some of the household work is too excessive and exploitative and can be categorized under child labour.

Family Characteristics

Family characteristics have played a crucial role in the employment of children based on the type of family (polygamous and monogamous), family size and the employment of parents. Household poverty, is one of the underlying causes of child labour that affects school enrollment, as many cannot afford school fees and school materials. Child labour becomes a majority option for most families for survival, which eventually affects the academic performance of some children, who labour for fees which endangers them physically and psychologically. While it might seem obvious that, children had to fend for their families, parental consent to work, comes in the way as a major issue of maximum consideration in child employment.

Single Parenthood

Many studies indicate that, children who reported their parents as no longer staying together, or those who had lost one of their parents and in most cases drained in poverty, engaged in work. The increasing number of orphans and children raised by single parents, undoubtedly necessitated the employment of children.

Community Variables

At community level, societal transformation and challenges therein, act as a stressor on families and diminishes the capability of families to look after their children properly. The rampant slum developments, which are a manifestation of poor socio-economic conditions and overcrowding, represent a bigger challenge to the life of a child than the society itself.

 Political Factors

Political factors, refer to conditions that cause civil and national strife and unrest including wars inter alia as considered. Children migrate to bigger cities in search for help. These children sometimes go accompanied by their parents and some unaccompanied, especially orphans. War zones, serve as catchment areas for vulnerable children who end up on the streets and involve themselves in child labour for survival.

The Social Capital Theory

The social capital theory offers a beginning point in the theoretical analysis of the street children phenomenon in Tanzania. This theory draws a correlation between family structure and home-leaving. Most of street children end up being employed at small age.

Tarangire National Park

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By Farzad Ghotaslou – Art in Tanzania internship

Tarangire National Park is a common safari destination for Art in Tanzania visitors. It is mostly combined with visits to Lake Manyara, Serengeti and N’gorongoro crater.

Ranking as the 6th largest National Park in Tanzania and covering an area of 2,600 square kilometers, The Tarangire National Park is most popular for its large elephant herds and mini-wildlife migration that takes place during the dry season which sees about 250,000 animals enter the park. Located slightly off the popular northern Tanzania Safari Circuit, the park lies between the meadows of Masai Steppe to the south east and the lakes of the Great Rift Valley to the north and west.

Within the northern part of Tarangire is the permanent River Tarangire also known as the lifeline of the park particularly in the dry season when most of the region is totally dry. This flows northwards until it exits the park in the northwestern corner to pour into Lake Burungi. There are several wide swamps which dry into green plains during the dry season in the south.

The name of the park originates from the Tarangire River that crosses the park. The Tarangire River is the primary source of fresh water for wild animals in the Tarangire Ecosystem during the annual dry season. The Tarangire Ecosystem is defined by the long-distance migration of wildebeest and zebras. During the dry season thousands of animals concentrate in Tarangire National Park from the surrounding wet-season dispersal and calving areas.

It covers an area of approximately 2,850 square kilometers (1,100 square miles.) The landscape is composed of granitic ridges, river valley, and swamps. Vegetation is a mix of Acacia woodland, Combretum woodland, seasonally flooded grassland, and baobab trees.

The Park is famous for its high density of elephants and baobab trees. Visitors to the park in the June to November dry season can expect to see large herds of thousands of zebras, wildebeest, and cape buffalo. Other common resident animals include waterbuck, giraffe, dik dik, impala, eland, Grant’s gazelle, vervet monkey, banded mongoose, and olive baboon. Predators in Tarangire include lion, leopard, cheetah, caracal, honey badger, and African wild dog.

The oldest known elephant to give birth to twins is found in Tarangire. A recent birth of elephant twins in the Tarangire National Park of Tanzania is a great example of how the birth of these two healthy and thriving twins can beat the odds.

Home to more than 550 bird species, the park is a haven for bird enthusiasts. The Park is also famous for the termite mounds that dot the landscape. Those that have been abandoned are often home to dwarf mongoose. In 2015, a giraffe that is white due to leucism was spotted in the park. Wildlife research is focused on African bush elephant and Masai giraffe. Since 2005, the protected area is considered a Lion Conservation Unit.

Every year during the dry season from June to November Tarangire hosts a wildlife migration which is not as dramatic as the Wildebeest Migration in the Serengeti, but receives a somewhat large number of animals. As most of this part of the country is dry, the Tarangire River remains the only source of water and consequently attracts large numbers of wildebeests, elephants, gazelles, zebras and hartebeest, buffaloes plus various predators like lions that come to drink and graze around the riverbanks. during the rain months of November to May, the zebras as well as large herds of wildebeests move into the north-western direction towards the Rift Valley floor amongst the large numbers of animals that spread across the large open areas of the Masai Steppe and dispersing all the way to Lake Manyara.

Because Tarangire is manly a seasonal national park, its wildlife differs depending on the season and also considering that It is part of a bigger ecosystem. As earlier mentioned, the dry season is the best time to visit Tarangire and you will be able to encounter various animals. This Park is home to one of the largest elephant populations in Africa with several herds of up to 300 members per herd. In addition, there are large numbers of impalas, elands, buffaloes, giraffes, Bohor reedbuck, Coke’s hartebeest, Thompson’s gazelle, the greater and lesser kudu and on rare occasions, the unusual gerenuk and fringe –eared Oryx are also seen.

A few black rhinos are also thought to be still present in this park. You will obviously see big numbers of elephants gather here as well as the wildebeests and zebras. Among the other common animals in the Tarangire are the leopards, lions, hyenas, and cheetah that seem to be popular within the southern open areas. The wild dogs are only seen occasionally

The birds within the Tarangire are also quite many, there are over 545 species that have been identified here. The stunning yellow collared lovebirds and the shy starlings are in plenty here in addition to other species.

During the dry months the concentration of animals around the Tarangire river is almost as diverse and reliable as in the Ngorongoro Crater. However, the ecosystem here is balanced by a localized migration pattern that is followed by the majority of game that resides in and around the park. As a result, Tarangire is superb in season but questionable the rest of the year. Elephants are the main attraction, with up to 3,000 in the park during the peak months. Peak season also sees good numbers of wildebeest and zebra as well as giraffe, buffalo, Thompson’s gazelle, greater and lesser kudu,

eland, leopard and cheetah. The real prizes in the park are dwarf mongoose, oryx and generuk – but viewings are very rare.

Herds of up to 300 elephants scratch the dry riverbed for underground streams, while migratory wildebeest, zebra, buffalo, impala, gazelle, hartebeest and eland crowd the shrinking lagoons. It’s the greatest concentration of wildlife outside the Serengeti ecosystem – a smorgasbord for predators – and the one place in Tanzania where dry- country antelope such as the stately fringe-eared oryx and peculiar long-necked gerenuk are regularly observed.

During the rainy season, the seasonal visitors scatter over a 20,000 sq km (12,500 sq miles) range until they exhaust the green plains, and the river calls once more. But

Tarangire’s mobs of elephant are easily encountered, wet or dry. The swamps-tinged green year-round, are the focus for 550 bird varieties, the most breeding species in one habitat anywhere in the world.

On drier ground you find the Kori bustard, the heaviest flying bird; the stocking-thighed ostrich, the world’s largest bird; and small parties of ground hornbills blustering like turkeys.

More ardent bird-lovers might keep an eye open for screeching flocks of the dazzlingly colourful yellow-collared lovebird, and the somewhat drabber rufous-tailed weaver and ashy starling – all endemic to the dry savannah of north-central Tanzania.

Disused termite mounds are often frequented by colonies of the endearing dwarf mongoose, and pairs of red-and-yellow barbet, which draw attention to themselves by their loud, clockwork-like duetting.

The permanent Tarangire River is the most dominant feature here and it’s after this river that the park was named. there are a number of large swamps that feed off some of its tributaries however, these are usually dry for most of the year but get very impassable during the rains .The Tarangire park is usually very dry, in fact drier than the Serengeti, however its vegetation is much more green especially with lots of elephant grass, vast areas with mixed acacia woodlands and some of the wonderful ribbons of the aquatic forest not to forget the giant baobab tree that can live up to 600 years storing between 300 and 900 liters of water.

Located slightly off the main safari route, Tarangire National Park is a lovely, quiet park in Northern Tanzania. It is most famous for its elephant migration, birding and authentic safari atmosphere. Most travelers to the region either miss out Tarangire altogether or venture into the park for a matter of hours – leaving swathes of Tarangire virtually untouched!

Tarangire safaris are the main activity, however, staying outside the park makes walking and night safari a possibility. There are no boat safaris on the rivers here, but Oliver’s Camp offers adventurous fly camping trips and very good walking safaris. Both Oliver’s Camp and Swala have recently started night safaris within the park itself. Ask us for more information as the regulations here seem to change every year!

During your Safari in Tarangire, you are highly recommended to stay for a couple of days especially in the south of the park which offers a less crowded safari experience and gives you the opportunity to enjoy an authentic African feel of the Tanzania’s countryside.

Art in Tanzania safaris – Selous game reserve. Tansanian safari ohjelmat

Tarangire is the surprise package on the Northern circuit. Often overshadowed by the Serengeti and the Ngorongoro Crater, Tarangire has huge concentrations of animals in the peak months and a fraction of the visitor numbers of any of the other Northern parks. From July through to October safaris here are superb, and the atmosphere and habitats are completely different from other parks. Tarangire is surprisingly large, giving visitors the quietest game viewing environment of all the parks in the region. The South of Tarangire is especially quiet, and lodges such as Swala and Oliver’s Camp are the perfect place to explore this remote area, and to really get away from any other travellers. Overall, a superb little park that offers great value compared to its neighbours and a seriously good option for getting away from it all.

The game viewing from July through to October is exceptional but for the remainder of the year most of the game migrates out of the park, onto the floor of the Rift Valley and to the grazing grounds of the Masai steppe. As a result, we would advise visitors not to expect high concentrations of game in the off-season months but would still recommend travelling here to those who want to avoid the crowds.

The best time to visit Tarangire is probably in the dry season from June – October, where the game viewing is at its best. Tsatse flies tend to be bad from December to March so although this is a good time to go to the Serengeti for the wildebeest calving, Tarangire is best avoided at this time.

Reference:

  1. “Tanzania National parks Corporate Information”. Tanzania Parks..
  2. “Trunk Twins : Elephant Twins Born in Tarangire | Asilia Africa”.
  3. Hale, T. (2016). “Incredibly Rare White Giraffe Spotted In Tanzania”. Retrieved 2016-01-27.
  4. IUCN Cat Specialist Group (2006). Conservation Strategy for the Lion Panthera leo in Eastern and Southern Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: IUCN.
  5. Wilkipedia
  6. https://www.tanzaniatourism.go.tz
  7. Trip Advisor

Working as a Nurse in Tanzania

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By Paul Mwakajila – Art in Tanzania internship

As a nurse and midwife, the main responsibility is to save the lives of people, especially a pregnant women. Despite the effort of the government and health workers the problems still exist. 


Pregnant women are in search of maternity leave occur at home, on the way, and few on services delivery areas due to late.


There are many causes for this problem.


First, the shortage of facilities and health care providers.


Traditional birth attendant (TBA), Its true that traditional birth attendant have done a great job of helping a pregnant women giving a birth especially in the year before advanced technology. But now the challenges of pregnant women are more and great, so you don’t need only experience without a knowledge and skills. 


Early marriage, there are tribes and some culture in the society they believe that a girl should get a marriage no matter how old she is, usually a women genitals (reproductive organ) need to be mature enough at least at age of 18 years so as to allow a pregnant and childbirth to be safer. This culture has become a very thorn to many girls and have led to death and mourning in many families.


There are many causes for maternal death, also chronic diseases like cancer,diabet,hypertension etc. Poor infrastructure, poor education, poor food intake during a pregnant etc.


Solution it depend on causes, despite the great effort of government, non-government organisation but there is still great need to build health facilities, to employ health care provider, educating the community about the best way to access the health care, the important of attending clinic during during pregnant, food intake during pregnancy, etc.

CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECT ON COMMON CROPS IN TANZANIA

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By Yakobo Bura – Art in Tanzania internship

Introduction

Climate Change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (example by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use.

Note that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines climate change as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.

The impact of climate change in Tanzania is dynamic and differs among regions as they are impacted in different ways. While other regions experience normal rainfall and temperature patterns, others have continued to experience temperature extremes, in this era of climate change, it is worthwhile to assess the effects of climate on common Tanzanian crops in order to design proper adaptation and mitigation measures that improve resilience (IPCC 2014; Serdeczny et al. 2017).

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has confirmed that there is substantial evidence that theme an extremes of climate variables have been changing in recent decades, and that rising atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations could cause the trends of climate variables to intensify in the coming decades (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2014). Ahmed et al (2011) found that rainfall has significantly decreased in Tanzania, especially in the recent years, and is further expected to decrease by the mid of this century.

Climate change has been the major constraint to agriculture productivity (crop production) in Tanzania because in addition to other deficiencies that exist in the sector, the nature of crops production practiced depends solely on rainfall.

2.0 Climate trends and future scenarios

 Within the noise of naturally variable climate, scientists have detected a gradual warming and wetting trend in Tanzania over the past 100 years 17 of about 0.5 °C and 10-20% respectively.  Exceptionally wet years at the beginning of the 1960s are largely responsible for this increase in average rainfall and these changes cannot be attributed to human induced global warming with any certainty. 

Future climate scenarios have been developed based on 10 International Federation of Red Crescent and Red Cross Societies 2010. However more recently produced scenarios using downscaled models for East Africa suggest that Central Tanzania may see a drying trend17, but the uncertainties in these models are believed to be large.  There is also uncertainty as to how climate change will influence extreme events – floods, droughts, heat waves, and storms in the tropics.

 The climate drivers for inter annual and decadal rainfall variability in ENSO events and Indian Ocean dynamics and models do not show clear tendencies for these events.  However Huntingdon et al. (2005) using  four Global Circulation Models (GCMs) suggests that the number of extremely dry and extremely wet years will increase, and some models suggest that we will see a 20-30% increase in extreme wet seasons at a medium CO2  emission scenario. The seasonality of rainfall could also change in the future though it must be emphasized that there is already considerable variability in seasonal rainfall totals.

 Future climate based on historical behavior with adjustments made to reflect various greenhouse gas (GHG) emission scenarios. There are few regionally downscaled models for East Africa or Tanzania and those that exist have embedded uncertainties, in part because of the limited temporal and historical coverage of climate observations. 

There is an increasing demand for regional scale seasonal forecasts and decadal scenarios from decision makers but care should be taken in communicating the uncertainties in these products.  The latter are oft en inferred from models operating over much longer time scales which inadequately capture decadal variability.  As well as highlighting a need for scientists and decision makers to be able to communicate and work under uncertainty this flags the importance of improving the coverage and quality of the hydro-meteorological data sets needed for regional modelling.

Available studies and climate models give variable results for future rainfall trends but there is certainty in the picture they provide for future temperature. The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report provides a comprehensive review of climate model projections for different regions in Africa focusing on the change in climate between the period 1980–1999 (to represent the current climate) and 2080–2099 (to represent the future).

Climate change impacts are likely to be felt through changes in variability rather than the long term shifts in average conditions so this uncertainty around changes in extreme events brings uncertainty in the extent of impacts. 

That said we can be fairly certain that over the next 20 to 100 years mean annual temperatures will rise at a rate which has been unprecedented over the last 10 000 years.  Over this period, sea level will also rise by between 0.1 and 1 metre bringing inundation and flooding to coastal areas, particularly problematic in low lying but densely populated areas in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar. In summary, temperatures are likely to increase in Tanzania by up to 1.5 °C in the next 20 years and by up to 4.3 °C by the 2080s.

Changes in rainfall patterns, total annual rainfall amounts and rainfall intensity are expected but there is less certainty here and this variability in temperature and rainfall affects the crops production in Tanzania as due to those effects the adaptive measures should be developed in order to reduce the climate change effects on crop production in Tanzania.

3.0 common crops grown in Tanzania

Tanzania records a continuous agricultural sector growth and is considered largely self-sufficient in its main staple crop maize.  Cassava, paddy, sorghum and bananas are the second most widely grown staple crops by farmers in Tanzania but there are also other crops that are grown in small scale; it is known that 68%of Tanzanians work force engages in farming, both in rural and urban areas. Whether grown in small scale or large scale both crops are affected by increasing in temperature and fluctuating rainfall patterns causing a change in production season, therefore threatening the livelihood of the farmers.

4.0 Severely affected crops by climate change in Tanzania

Mostly affected crops are the annual crops such as maize, rice, wheat, sorghum and millet, cassava, since they have short life span so the change in rainfall patterns (increase /decrease) and increase in temperature could affect these crops immediately and hence the impacts of loss will be experienced by the farmers within a short period of time. Although the climate change affects almost all crops negatively but in some extent increase in rainfall or decrease could favor the certain types of crops depending on the length of their growing seasons.

5.0 Impacts of climate change on crops production in Tanzania

The agriculture sector in Tanzania is particularly vulnerable to climatic change because it is customarily dependent on rainfall. Increasing temperature, decreased and/or unpredictable rainfall, increased evapotranspiration and seasonal unpredictability has consequences on drought, floods, crop yields, shifts in agro-ecological zones and agro-biodiversity and germplasm diversity, outbreaks of pest and diseases, Studies undertaken during the INC indicate that increase in temperature by 20C-40C would alter the distribution of the agro-ecological zones.

Consequently, areas that used to grow perennial crops would be suitable for annual crops.  Furthermore, global warming would tend to accelerate plant growth and hence reduce the length of growing seasons. With increase in temperature and reduced rainfall as well as change in rainfall patterns, average yield of maize is expected to decrease by 33% country wide. Yield of the same crop could decrease by up to 84% in the central regions, 22% in Northeastern highlands, 17% in the Lake Victoria region, and 10 – 15% in the Southern highlands.

However a temperature increase of 2-40C, is likely to boost coffee production by 18% in bimodal rainfall areas and 16% in unimodal rainfall areas. The potential impacts of climate change on cotton production in Tanzania parallel that for coffee though cotton yields could decrease by 10% – 20% due to the impact of pests and diseases.

It has been projected that though there will be a general increase in rainfall in most parts of Tanzania some areas will experience reduced rainfall that will result into severe droughts with negative consequences on crops production. According to Mckinsey and Company (2009) rainfall is expected to decrease by 10 percent and variability in the annual rainfall will increase by 25 percent under a moderate change in climate, leading to more severe and frequent droughts.

Under a high climate change scenario rainfall in these regions would fall by 20% and variability would increase by 50%. Frequent and severe droughts and rainfall variability are the major factors influencing crop production in Tanzania and unreliable rainfall have always resulted into unexpected low crop yields in most parts of the country (Munishi et al, 2009). It has also been argued that by 2030 about 5% of the 4.4 million inhabitants of the central regions of Tanzania will suffer hunger from poor yields even if there is no change in drought frequency and severity.

6.0 Mitigation/adaptation response (short and long terms) in crops productions to climate change in Tanzania

Given the nature of impacts on the agriculture sector there has been an expressed need for differential adaptation strategy across various regions depending upon the certainty of projections, the mix of beneficial and adverse impacts, and the urgency and timing of such impacts. For the case of agriculture a key portfolio of adaptation responses would involve measures that boost the production of crops that will be negatively impacted by climate change such as maize and associated crops.

6.1 Current Adaptation/Mitigation Responses – Short Term

According to National Adaptation Plan (NAPA, 2007), current adaptation/mitigation measures in agriculture include;

  • Increased irrigation,
  • Increased use of manure and fertilizer,
  • Better use of management tools including climate information. This would go hand in hand with measures that improve and boost the production of other food crops where they grow better
  • Small scale irrigation and water harvesting 
  • R&D on drought tolerant seed varieties,
  • Agriculture extension activities and education on climate change and its impacts,
  • Diversification of agriculture i.e. growing different types of crops on different land units

Example adaptation/ mitigation measures against climate change on crops production

6.2 Potential Adaptation/Mitigation Responses – Medium to Long Term

Further to the current adaptation measures there are several potential strategies for adaptation to climate change impact in the Agriculture sector, these include;

  • Use of improved crop varieties,
  • Breeding crop and livestock for drought and pest resistant varieties
  • Pest risk analysis, improvement of pest management techniques, and pest tolerance, application of new technologies in pest management (IPM, breeding, biotechnology), alteration of pest management systems and Improvement of assessment tools for forecasting migratory pests
  • Awareness creation on climate change and adaptation strategies,
  • Strengthening early warning systems including information dissemination that provide daily weather prediction and seasonal forecasts
  • Better use of climate and weather data, weather forecasts, and other management tools including development of long term monitoring systems to distinguish between natural environmental variability, effects of human activities and climate change and improved soil and water conservation measures,
  • Improving irrigation potential including use of drip irrigation for specific regions,
  • Development of sound land management practices including planning crop farming to align with more appropriate agro ecological zones including changes in crop rotation practices,
  • Promotion of indigenous knowledge on adaptive capacity to climate change impacts and capacity building on climate change.

7.0 Conclusion

Conclusively the climate change is becoming the major threat to crops productions in Tanzania, climate change cause increase in temperature and fluctuation in rainfall patterns. In some cases there is the rainfall delay to rain (onset rainfall) and off early hence causing shrinkage of the production season, consequently results in to low production of both commercial and food crops.

It is also critical to provide education to farmers about climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. Most importantly, the government should massively sensitize and build the capacities of rural communities, who are also the chief victims of climate change, to practice sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural technologies such as conservation agriculture, farrowing, agroforestry, afforestation, integrated plant nutrient management, integrated pest management etc. that have the capacity to increase resilience to, or mitigate effects of climate change.

On a macro level, governments should consider investing in technologies with lower greenhouse gas emissions in key sectors of manufacturing, automobile, health and agriculture. Consequently, various global initiatives and agreements exist aimed at reducing climate change (effects), to which is Tanzania is a signatory, and must therefore remain committed to achieving such goals as Sustainable Development Goal(s) (Climate Action). In accordance with this review, it is envisioned that the climate will continue to have impacts on crops production. These impacts will extend to socioeconomic aspects of rural communities which are most vulnerable to climate change. It must be noted that, climate change does not occur in void, as its effects and resulting environmental alterations interact with agriculture.

8.0 References

Ahmed, S., N. Deffenbaugh, T. Hertel, D. Lobell, N. Ramankutty, A. Rios, and P. Rowhani. 2011. “Climate Volatility and Poverty Vulnerability in Tanzania.” Global Environmental Change 21: 46–55. doi:10.1016/j. gloenvcha.2010.10.003.  

Mckinsey & Company 2009. Economics of Climate Adaptation. Shaping Climate Resilient Development: A framework for decision making. Climate Works Foundation, Global Environmental Facility, Rockefeller Foundation, European Commission, Mckinsey & Company, Standard Chattered Bank, and Swiss Re. 159 pp

Munishi, P. K. T.  N. I Kihupi, S. J. Nindi, E. Mpeta, F. F. Tilya L. Chang’a and P. Yanda 2009. Profiling the Climate of Tanzania for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation. Unpublished Report, Sokoine University of Agriculture Morogoro Tanzania 53pp

Munishi PKT, Deo Shirima, Happiness Jackson and Halima Kilungu 2010. Analysis of Climate Change and its Impacts on Productive Sectors, Particularly Agriculture in Tanzania